Document Type : Original Research
Authors
1
Presidency
2
Kharazmi University
Abstract
Zamin” [ground] is one of the terms that, in the 11th and 12th Hijri centuries, emerged as a critical literary term in historical literary sources and the poetry of innovative poets, acquiring a specific and unique usage. In poetic gatherings—many of which were recorded in biographical anthologies (Tazkiras)—innovative poets proposed a poetic ground (zamin) through imitation and experimentation, composing eloquent and refined verses within it. Since no comprehensive research has yet been conducted on this term, this study aims to examine zamin within its historical and literary context, revisiting the perspectives of Safavid-era poets and critics to identify its nature, forms, achievements, and drawbacks in the literary sphere of that period. Using a library-based research method and a descriptive-analytical approach, this study scrutinizes the term. As the findings suggest, zamin is an essential term for modern literary criticism, serving as a concise and comprehensive alternative to meter, rhyme, and refrain. This term first appeared in Resaleh-ye Jalaliyeh by Mohtasham Kashani and his odes, later appearing in the diwans of Ghazali Mashhadi, Orfi Shirazi, and Muntakhab al-Tawarikh by Bada’uni, before becoming prevalent in the diwans and Tazkiras of the period. Although zamin was primarily applied to the ghazal form, it is noteworthy that the creation and proposal of it were not limited to “misra’” [line], “beyt” [couplet], or ghazals but also appeared in mathnawi and qasida forms. While crafting complex meanings, intricate themes, and striking lines often required fresh and innovative zamin, at times the poetic zamin proved restrictive and unproductive, failing to nurture new thematic developments. Additionally, it sometimes led to negative consequences, such as facilitating the plagiarism of other poets’ meanings and themes, resulting in the creation of low-value, monotonous, and repetitive ghazals with clichéd and poorly constructed themes.
Introduction
During the Safavid era, particularly in the 11th and 12th centuries AH, certain specialized terms became prevalent in biographical anthologies (tazkiras) and poetic collections (diwans). These terms had previously been used in a general sense but acquired specific meanings during this period. The number of such terms in this literary epoch is considerable; they appear primarily in tazkiras, in the writings of critics from the Indian subcontinent, and in the diwans of poets of the time, and their usage is largely confined to poetic criticism.
In essence, the trend of Taz-e Goftan [innovative expression] and Tarze Tazeh [fresh style], in dialogue with the schools of Voqu’ and Vasokht, required specific terminology to facilitate literary creativity. Poets relied on these newly coined terms both in theoretical discourse and in crafting poetic themes. In other words, these terms defined the framework and structure of the poetry of the era. Shamisa (1999) remarks on this: The heated debates on literary criticism and stylistics that had begun among Indian literati necessitated new terminology. These terms reveal just how intense and profound literary discussions were within the cultural circles of India (Shamisa, 1999).
This aspect of literary criticism—the use of poetic-critical terminology—is more clearly reflected in tazkiras and in the works of subcontinental critics. It is no exaggeration to say that the subcontinent played a major role in the development of literary criticism during the Safavid period. The most significant domain of literary criticism in the history of Persian literature emerged in India (Shamisa, 1999). The presence of masterful critics such as Siraj al-Din Ali Khan Arzu and Mir Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami helped place poetic creation within a specific, assessable, and criticizable framework. This critical perspective was also evident among poets and Persian-language writers, who generally followed similar techniques and methods in composing poetry. One such technique was tatta’abo [emulation], that is, responding to the poetry of earlier poets—a method widely observed in the ghazals of poets of this period, especially Sa’ib, Fani Kashmiri, Juyā Tabrizi, and Sayyida-ye Nasafi. Mir Mohammad Zaman Rasekh expresses this idea in the following verse:
“The mind is not content with mere imitation of fortune,
One cannot build a house upon another’s foundation (zamin)” (Iman, 1970, p. 304).
Another method sets a misra’ [line] or beyt [couplet] as a basis on which poets would test their skills and learn the craft of poetry. This approach served as a basis for creating striking linees, elevated couplets, and kindred ghazals, numerous examples of which can be found in the diwans of poets from this era. The term under discussion, zamin [poetic ground], was used in the teaching and learning of poetic craft during this period. In poetic symposia (majalis-e mosha’ereh), poets would propose a new zamin and invite others to test their poetic abilities within it:
“I have not raised the head of my thought to such heights
That anyone but the emulator of my verse could conceive such a ground” (Bidel, 2008, p. 853).
Here, it is important to note that creating/inventing a poetic ground and discovering/proposing one are two distinct concepts. Creative and innovative poets like Sa’ib and Bidel were the originators of poetic zamin, and crafted model poems for others to emulate depended on their imaginative capacity. By contrast, proposing and presenting that poetic ground served to facilitate emulation and imitation, aligning composition with the prevailing poetic style.
Findings and Research Results
The search for the term zamin in literary-historical sources from the 11th and 12th Hijri centuries, together with an analysis of its usage in its contextual usage, leads us to conclude that its origins trace back to Resāleh-ye Jalāliyeh by Mohtasham Kashani. Following him, poets and biographers from both Iran and India adopted and further established the term. Among them, prominent figures of the Indian Style (sabk-e hindi) gave special attention to this term. These include Sa’ib Tabrizi, Shohrat Shirazi, and Ta’sir Tabrizi, representing the Iranian branch (Nāzokh-Khiyālān), as well as Bidel Dehlavi, Gani Kashmiri, and Ghanimat Panjabi, representing the Indian branch (Dur-Khiyālān).
Among the biographical anthologies and literary-historical sources examined in this study, it appears that the term zamin was first used in Muntakhab al-Tawārīkh by Bada’uni. Subsequently, it appeared in works such as Muzakkir al-Asḥāb, Kalemāt al-Shu’arā, Safīneh-ye Khoshgu, Riyāz al-Shu’arā, Majma ‘al-Nafā’is, Maqālāt al-Shu’arā, Mardom-Dideh, Khazāneh-ye ‘Āmerah, Sham ‘-e Anjoman. However, in some tazkiras—sometimes even within the same texts—alternative terms were used instead of zamin, such as tatabbo [emulation], dar bahr [in meter], dar bahr va qāfiyeh [in meter and rhyme], pirovī [following], justojū-ye kalām-e ostādān [seeking masters’ words], javāb-go’ī [response poetry], taqlīd [imitation], be rāh... qadam zadan [walking in the path of...], naqīzeh [parody], nazireh-gū’ī [writing poetic responses], and esteqbāl [welcoming verse]. Nevertheless, zamin proved to be more comprehensive and frequently used term. A brief review of tazkiras such as Mer’āt al-Khayāl, Hamīsheh Bahār, Kalemāt al-Shu’arā, Majma’al-Nafā’is, Khazāneh-ye ‘Āmerah, and Shām-e Gharībān reveals that Indian biographers and critics devoted far greater attention to this term—and to literary criticism more generally—than did their Iranian counterparts.
During the Safavid period, the term zamin entered a new semantic phase. Innovative poets (Tāzeh-Guyān) and literary critics introduced it into a new domain of poetic criticism, giving it a meaning previously unseen in Persian literary history. These meaning-weaving poets (ma’nī-band) and theme-creators (mazmūn-āfarīn) would establish a fresh poetic zamin—a framework with appealing meter, rhyme, refrain, and syntax— within which they crafted novel meanings, striking verses (mesrā’-e barjasteh), and innovative themes. They then presented this framework as a challenge for other poets to test their skills and refine their craft. This poetic contestation (zūr-āzmāyī) for composing lofty and vivid poetry is well attested in literary histories, tazkiras, and the diwans of innovative poets. The zamin proposed by master poets served as a model through which others could learn the norms of Tarz-e Tāzeh (the Fresh Style). The fruitful efforts of these poets in utilizing zamin are evident in three key areas: meaning, striking lines, and themes.
Beyond individual lines (mesrā’) and couplets (beyt), ghazals, mathnawis, and qasidas also served as poetic zamins for innovators. However, the ghazal—due to its structural independence and suitability for meaning-creation (ma’nī-āfarīnī)—was the most effective form for proposing new zamin. Given that the ghazal dominated this era (often called the Age of the Ghazal), zamin became particularly associated with this form.
Not every zamin was equally conducive to thematic exploration (mazmūn-yābī), meaning-creation (ma’nī-bandī), or poetic innovation. Descriptors such as “sanglākh” [rocky], “tang” [narrow], “moshkel” [difficult], and “sakht” [hard] reflect the challenges poets faced in composing within certain frameworks. Moreover, the overuse of zamin led to several drawbacks, including the production of low-quality, uninspired verses lacking beauty and originality; overlapping themes among poets (tavārod); literary theft (serqat-e adabī) and plagiarism; repetitive meanings, clichéd themes, and unoriginal imagery (ibtizāl); and excessive imitation (tatabbo), which stifled creativity. Thus, while zamin was a vital tool for poetic innovation, its misuse contributed to the decline in poetic quality, reinforcing derivative and repetitive compositions in later periods.
References
Bidel Dehlavi, A. M. A. al-Q. (2008). Ghazaliyyāt-e-Mirza Abd al-Qadir Bidel Dehlavi (K. M. Khasta & K. Khalili, Eds.; F. Moradi, Rev. & Notes). Zavvar Publications. [In Persian]
Iman, R. A. K. (1970). Tazkirat-e-muntakhab al-lata’if (S. M. R. Jalali Na’ini & S. A. H. Abidi, Eds.). Chap-e Tabaan Publications. [In Persian]
Shamisa, S. (1999). Naqd-e-adabi [Literary criticism]. Ferdows Publications. [In Persian]
Keywords
Subjects
Literary Criticism