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Showing 9 results for Possible World
Volume 1, Issue 4 (12-2021)
Abstract
Discovering the differences between the various systems of modal logics was one of the advantages of inventing Kripke semantics. One of the most obvious examples is interpreting the necessity of provability in provability logic. According to Boolos in The Logic of Provability, by discovering this logic, we can say that the understanding of new issues in the field of argument was opened. In this paper, with a formal approach and with a descriptive-analytical and comparative method, the axiomatic propositional systems of the GL, Grz, and H, and their possible world semantics based on Kripke semantics are studied, as well as the sequent calculus of GL (in Peano arithmetic) and GLS (in the standard model) were introduced. Finally, the meta-theorems of soundness, consistency, and completeness of the GL were interpreted and proved.
Hossein Pirloojeh, Maryam Fayyazi,
Volume 4, Issue 14 (12-2011)
Volume 4, Issue 14 (12-2011)
Abstract
In the present article, after reviewing the classical typologies of focalization and considering discoursal markers of focalization identified by traditional narratologists, we will turn our attention to a kind of focalization which entails hypothesizing about what might have been perceived/conceived through a perspective never adopted by the focalizer; thus “hypothetical focalization”. For this kind of focalization to be described (ahead of any explanation), we need to apply some linguistic and philosophical insights gained either after, or out of, the ensemble of conventional narratology. The ideas specifically at issue here will be those first developed within the frameworks of the possible-worlds and intensional semantics. The due conceptual framework will serve to spotlight the intensional aspects (or the sense) of narrative well beyond the structural narratologists’ and logical semanticists’ formal accounts. Therefore, the present study not only will specify the most usual modes of verbal focalization in a number of Persian extracts, but will also examine some lesser known semantic dimensions of narrative discourse, drawing on those virtual aspects of focalization inherently refraining from the logical or formal investigations pertinent to structural narratology.
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Volume 10, Issue 40 (12-2017)
Volume 10, Issue 40 (12-2017)
Abstract
There is a tradition in contemporary literary theory and philosophy of literarture according to which there is a rift between literary/aesthetic value and cognitive value. The anti-cognitivist maintains that even if a literary work has some cognitive value, this has nothing to do with the work’s overall aesthetic value. Furthermore, if a work’s perspective on some issue is seriously flawed, this, by no means contaminates its aesthetic purenss. This paper aims to demonstrate the opposite. It thus makes use of a ceratin thought-experiment and the concept of possible worlds to show that the cognitivist’s position is justified and proceeds to illustrate that even polyphony as an aesthectic value cannot be properly understood without recourse to its cognitive status. It then goes on to meet a serious challenge: the so-called “institutional argument” which is deemed to be among the best arguments in the anti-cognitivist’s dialectical arsenal. The argument is shown to have several defects in the context of the contemporary debates in theory and philosophy of literature. The main conclusion of the paper is thus as follows: The cognitive value of a literary work is part and parcel of its aesthetic value
Volume 11, Issue 2 (5-2020)
Abstract
Conditional sentence is a compound sentence consisting of two clauses: protasis and apodosis. The purpose of this paper is investigating the conditional sentences in contemporary Persian language based on the Declerck and Reed typology (2001). According to this semantic typology, possible world of protasis is divided in to two factual and theoretical classes. Theoretical possible world can be neutral or nonneutral and the nonneutral is divided in to four types: closed, open, tentative and counterfactual. In the present study, we try to examine these types with respect to the corpus of 286 conditional sentences extracted from ten contemporary story books and the frequency of occurrence of each one to be determined separately. The analysis of Persian conditional sentences shows that the Persian conditional construction is compatible with mentioned typology and open possible world has the highest occurrence frequency, and the neutral, closed, factual, tentative and counterfactual possible worlds respectively dedicated the highest frequency of the open possible world. The higher frequency of occurrence of the open possible world arises from the fact that in this possible world a probabilistic situation is considered and there is no certainty about its occurrence and this interpretation is most consistent with the operation of the conditional construction. This study also shows that in addition to the common conditional conjunctions such as “ agar, be shartike, vaella, vagarna, ...” other conjunctions are also used as conditional conjunctions like : “ valo, farzan, hamin ke, be mojarade inke, vaghti, cheo…che, hala ke, ta, ke ….” .
Volume 12, Issue 1 (3-2021)
Abstract
The theory of possible worlds presents a model for narrative semantics. This essay focuses on the use of possible worlds’ theory in narrative semantics with interdisciplinary approach. Conception of narration based on possible worlds’ perspective is the main purpose of this paper. Based on this perspective, plot is not only textual actual worlds which some events occur in it, but also include possible worlds which without regarding them, narrative semantics will remain incomplete. Such perspective is derived of semantics of modal logic; therefore, for explanation of this perspective attention to modal logic is necessary. Contemporary
semantic theories have three main branches: philosophical, formal and linguistic semantics. Linguistic semantics uses formal semantics as a semantic logic in order to make clear how the study of meaning is. In this essay it will be illustrated that logical semantics can be applied in narrative semantics. Consequently, if the readers include private worlds of characters or fictional minds’ worlds and various possible worlds in their reading, they will get more complete and more profound conception in reading narrative text, because a fiction is considered as a complete modal system and the mental representations of characters is equal with the PWs of a modal system. Some of accomplishments got, through foreshadowing to meaning of narrative text on the basis of this model, are the redefinition of plot and conflict notion. In order to apply this model in a narrative text, the binary Wandering Island and Wandering Cameleer novels by Simin Daneshvar has been chosen.
1. Introduction
The theory of possible worlds presents a model for narrative semantics. This essay focuses on the use of possible worlds’ theory in narrative semantics with interdisciplinary approach. Concept of narration based on possible worlds’ perspective is the main purpose of this paper. Based on this perspective, plot is not only textual actual worlds which some events occur in it, but also include possible worlds which without considering them, narrative semantics will remain incomplete. Such perspective is derived from semantics of modal logic; therefore, for explanation of this perspective attention to modal logic is necessary. Contemporary semantic theories have three main branches: philosophical, formal and linguistic semantics. Linguistic semantics uses formal semantics as a semantic logic in order to make clear how the study of meaning is. In this essay it will be illustrated that formal semantics can be applied in narrative semantics. By making interdisciplinary connections between semantic method in formal logic and its use in narrative semantics, a helpful correspondence was made between this method and how to explain meaning in narration. Before that narratologists use formal semantics in studying narrative semantics, linguistics had the benefit of this method to study meaning in language. Linguistics in linguistic semantics branch used the conception of possible world in semantics of modal logic and formal semantics to understand and explain the meaning. In this essay, it has been represented how narratologists have used this method to clear the ways for construction of the meaning of narration. The main question of this research is to determine what is the process of construction of the meaning in narration in the light of possible worlds’ prospective? And based on this, how the classical definitions of some narrative elements are redefined? And why? The importance of this subject lies in the significant place of concept of possible worlds in literary theory and illuminate the meaning of narrative from a new aspect. This concept is used in four area of literary theory: 1) theory and semantic of fictionality 2) theory of typology of fictional worlds 3) narrative semantics and 4) postmodernism poetics. Contemplation and research in every of these aspects needs a distinct research but now this essay is about the use of concept of possible worlds in narrative semantic domain because of its special use in understanding the meaning of narrative. This essay clears out that the concept of narrative on the basis of possible worlds’ perspective has effect on understanding the meaning of narrative more completely and thoroughly. Among narratologists, one of the preeminent figure who worked in this area and tried for conception of the fiction in form of a complete modal system was Mari Lure Ryan. Therefore, this essay focuses on Ryan’s collection of works from the methodological point of view. If we look at the meaning of narrative in terms of concept of possible worlds, in order to understand the logic of acts of fiction correctly, in narrative semantics we must consider potential events in characters’ mind that they think about alongside factual events which happen in story world. From this point of view, characters’ mental representations are understood as possible worlds of a modal system. Accordingly, textual actual world is the center of our “system of reality” and non-actual possible worlds also exist in this modal system of realism. Analysis of concept of a narrative is done in terms of its fundamental components and private worlds of characters is one the most important components of the meaning of a narrative. Therefore, how to understand the meaning of a fiction is directly related to whether include the fictional possible worlds or not. This attitude provides a special understanding of the dynamics of narrative acts. By considering fictional possible worlds (which include: wish world, obligations world, goals and plans world and fantasies world) in meaning of plot of narrative. In this new attitude, the plot of a fiction is the movement of different and various worlds in textual universe and in fact, it’s the complex and intricate connections among these textual actual and non-actual worlds that keep the engine of narrative machine on and add to its dynamism. In the same way, conflict as another important narrative factor, also is no longer traditionally defined as the problem or contrast between good or evil forces. For practical explanation of issues, two novels by Simin Daneshvar have been chosen: Wandering Island and Wandering Cameleer. Actually in these two fictional worlds only occurs one plotline (ATW) but many other plots (possible worlds or other alternative situations) parallel to actual fictional world are moving in story world which in no way without them the meaning of fiction can be understood. There are possible or suppressed plots in these two stories that a shadow of their tracks is shown in narrative but they remain unfinished and incomplete. Understanding the more complete meaning of these plot stories depends on considering this suppressed plotline. Possible worlds that “Hasti” could make them real but it did not happen. Conflict is also evident in possible worlds of characters in Wandering Island and Wandering Cameleer. In plot of this story the character who has least success in resolving his conflicts by aligning all his private possible worlds with textual actual world is "Salim". Consequently, if the readers include private worlds of characters or fictional minds’ worlds and various possible worlds, they will get more complete and more profound conception in reading narrative text, because a fiction is considered as a complete modal system and the mental representations of characters are equal with the PWs of a modal system. Some of accomplishments got, through foreshadowing to meaning of narrative text on the basis of this model, are the redefinition of plot and conflict notion. Understanding the story from the perspective of possible worlds’ theory sheds new light on the conception of the meaning of narrative, story conflict, personality psychology, fictionallity of events, genre studies and so on.
Anita Taali, Zohre Taebi Noghondari, Mahmood Reza Ghorban-Sabbagh,
Volume 13, Issue 52 (12-2020)
Volume 13, Issue 52 (12-2020)
Abstract
Auster’s latest novel, published in 2017, reveals his mastery in creating a complicated and unusual narrative once again. The title of this novel, 4321, has been a point of interest to a number of critics, but their analyses have not been successful in clarifying the complexities of its narratology. The current study aims to investigate the narrative structure of this novel based on Ryan’s possible worlds and multiverse theories. The findings reveal that in this novel, Auster engineers a 4D narrative in which the mental world of a character named Ferguson is represented. In this 4D narrative, the multiverse progresses in four paths to tell the tales of four Fergusons. At the end of the narrative, using a final twist, Auster declares the fourth Ferguson as the author of a book entitled 4321, thus exposing the circular structure of its structure. This revelation helps the reader recognize the point zero of the narrative (1.0) and understand Auster’s motif in beginning and ending the narrative with a joke. The transformation of the narrative structure enables Auster to successfully represent a tangible embodiment of the contradictory layers in the authorial self and mentality. Hence, 4321 comes to life, seemingly similar to a 4D holographic movie, to embody the multiverse of Ferguson’s character in its narrative multiverse.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 14, Issue 56 (12-2021)
Volume 14, Issue 56 (12-2021)
Abstract
Introducing narrative as a possible world, while emphasizing its self-sufficiency, the present study aims to provide an alternative to those theories that consider narrative as a reflection of the state of the affairs in the real world. Accordingly, having discussied the self-sufficiency of narrative configured through its internal forces, the research explores the subject of contextualism from a macro-cultural, phenomenological, and linguistic point of view. This research methodologically uses a combination of phenomenological and linguistic approaches in the study of literary context to apply the principles of the possible literary world in the light of topics such as symbolic forms, wholeness, semantic heterogeneity, probable impossibility, internal logic of the work and semiotic reading. In this study, it is found that in the semantics of the possible literary world, the consistency theory of truth is more effective than the coherency theory of truth, and narrative, while suspending the referential function of the text, is better understood via its internal orderings.
- Introduction
In the mimetic reading of literary works, an attempt is always made to find a reasonable relationship between the narrative and the outside world. Accordingly, most thinkers, working in the field of literature and history, try to investigate the historical origins and real contexts of literary works and to reveal the objective considerations from which the narrative is thought to have originated. That is why, narrative¸ according to such a view, is regarded as a mirror in front of the nature or the world, and therefore the identity of fictional characters, images, events and narrative situations are reduced to a shadow, or else a copy for which one could find a corresponding or equivalent phenomenon in the world.
For this reason, historical events, personalities, and the state of affairs in the outside world, are supposed to be the source or foundation on which the narrative is constructed and represented. Since at the core of this theory lies the principle of reference, and the truth or falsity of propositions depends on the conformity of such representations with the particular affairs of the world, the historical reading of the narrative is more dominant. In this approach every phenomenon in the narrative is interpreted to be a reflection of an invulnerable reality. Thus, such an approach not only negates the independence and self-sufficiency of the narrative, but also reduces it to the level of history. But that is not all. Indeed, sometimes, there is an allegorical approach which seems to be more quasi-philosophical than the mimetic reading. From this perspective, narrative as a special literary world is regarded as a place for the re-presentation or re-emergence of some universal phenomena. In fact, when it is not possible to identify a particular event or real character behind the representations of a narrative, the reader, researcher, or the literary critic shifts from a mimetic to an interpretive or allegorical approach. Accordingly, fictional characters or events acquire their originality not by reference to specific historical phenomena, but by reference to universal themes.
In this way, "fictional particular represents actual universal" (Doležel, 1988: 477). Such a view leads to the formation of a kind of literary typology according to which a particular phenomenon is considered to be correspondent to universal affairs. In this way, in a narrative, characters are regarded to be equivalent to different social types, character traits are equivalent to general psychological characteristics, and specific or partial situations or events are equivalent to general and universal historical situations. Thus, from this perspective, the narrative contains abstract categories that are manifested in the guise of fictional events and characters. For this reason, in the allegorical reading of a work, it seems necessary to rely to elevate the narrative facts to the level of general affairs on the basis of an interpretive or allegorical approach.
In other words, the components, present in the narrative, are distanced from their narrative identity in the allegorical approach. These elements are, instead, reformulated as sociological, moral, or psychological types or generalities. Obviously, such an approach deprives the narrative of its special charms due to the exclusion of the particular. For this reason, in what follows, relying on the principle of self-sufficiency of the work, I try to provide an approach to reading narratives, which not only maintains the individuality of the work, but do not reduce the narrative to real or allegorical affairs, as well. According to such a view, narrative as a possible world is self-sufficient and has a real identity, and has therefore the power to be configured through its own regulative rules. Therefore, in this research, it is assumed that the validity or cogency of the characters and events in the narrative is guaranteed by its internal system. Accordingly, in the following, while rethinking the concepts of "self-sufficiency" and "contextualism" of the narrative, and emphasizing the independence of the work, I would try to elucidate and highlight the axioms of the narrative semantic.
For this reason, historical events, personalities, and the state of affairs in the outside world, are supposed to be the source or foundation on which the narrative is constructed and represented. Since at the core of this theory lies the principle of reference, and the truth or falsity of propositions depends on the conformity of such representations with the particular affairs of the world, the historical reading of the narrative is more dominant. In this approach every phenomenon in the narrative is interpreted to be a reflection of an invulnerable reality. Thus, such an approach not only negates the independence and self-sufficiency of the narrative, but also reduces it to the level of history. But that is not all. Indeed, sometimes, there is an allegorical approach which seems to be more quasi-philosophical than the mimetic reading. From this perspective, narrative as a special literary world is regarded as a place for the re-presentation or re-emergence of some universal phenomena. In fact, when it is not possible to identify a particular event or real character behind the representations of a narrative, the reader, researcher, or the literary critic shifts from a mimetic to an interpretive or allegorical approach. Accordingly, fictional characters or events acquire their originality not by reference to specific historical phenomena, but by reference to universal themes.
In this way, "fictional particular represents actual universal" (Doležel, 1988: 477). Such a view leads to the formation of a kind of literary typology according to which a particular phenomenon is considered to be correspondent to universal affairs. In this way, in a narrative, characters are regarded to be equivalent to different social types, character traits are equivalent to general psychological characteristics, and specific or partial situations or events are equivalent to general and universal historical situations. Thus, from this perspective, the narrative contains abstract categories that are manifested in the guise of fictional events and characters. For this reason, in the allegorical reading of a work, it seems necessary to rely to elevate the narrative facts to the level of general affairs on the basis of an interpretive or allegorical approach.
In other words, the components, present in the narrative, are distanced from their narrative identity in the allegorical approach. These elements are, instead, reformulated as sociological, moral, or psychological types or generalities. Obviously, such an approach deprives the narrative of its special charms due to the exclusion of the particular. For this reason, in what follows, relying on the principle of self-sufficiency of the work, I try to provide an approach to reading narratives, which not only maintains the individuality of the work, but do not reduce the narrative to real or allegorical affairs, as well. According to such a view, narrative as a possible world is self-sufficient and has a real identity, and has therefore the power to be configured through its own regulative rules. Therefore, in this research, it is assumed that the validity or cogency of the characters and events in the narrative is guaranteed by its internal system. Accordingly, in the following, while rethinking the concepts of "self-sufficiency" and "contextualism" of the narrative, and emphasizing the independence of the work, I would try to elucidate and highlight the axioms of the narrative semantic.
- Review of Literature
In fact, shortly after Kripke reinterpreted Leibniz's classical concept of possible worlds in a formal logical system, the study of literature and the analysis of the fictional world from the perspective of possible worlds have been prevalent since 1970s. In this regard, Pavel (1975), as a beginner, tries to clarify the relationship between narrative and the real world. He critiques the tendency to analyse literary works in the light of the referential function due to its reducing the art work to the mere reflection of the outside world. Instead, he proposes a specific ontology by which the self-sufficiency of literary works is guaranteed, as well. Another research which is of high significance especially for its explanatory power and also its coherent reasoning is that of Doležel (1988). The research is to explain the nature of the narrative and its related ontology. In this study, Doležel emphasizes that the origin of representation is the author himself. He believes that fictional characters are real in a hypothetical world before the author turns to them, and that the creator of the work has not necessarily experienced examples of them in the real world. He avows that the fiction writer creates his characters in exactly the same way as the historian constructs historical characters, with this difference that the writer is the historian of the realms of fiction. I do not quite agree with the outcomes of this research because of its reduction of the ontology of the possible world to the reception theory, though I may refer to some of his findings while I give my own suggestions. In any case, Doležel considers the fictional world to be something different from the real world, emphasizing that fictional characters are possible and not real. However, the position of Wolterstorff (1988) is in opposition to this principle. He provides the reader with some reasons to show how believing in non-existent, but probable characters, whose being is manifested only by the narrative, is objectionable. Another research which is of high importance in terms of its historical aspects of the theory and also its explanatory power is that of Ronen (1994). In a comprehensive study, Ronen emphasizes that employing philosophical teachings about the possible world could be useful in literary theory due to the similarities between the two. While examining the historical course of the theory of possible worlds, he explains its rules and finally applies the teachings of this field in the field of narration. There are a number of notable criticisms of Ronen, including Van Peer (1996), who addresses one of the key terms he uses and argues that asserting the fictional elements to be non-real is exactly in contrast with what the possible world theory is likely to prove. In a book review, Earnshaw (1997) also shows that taking a pragmatic viewpoint, Ronen ultimately leaves it up to the reader to determine the possibility or probability of fictional characters, and he thus ignores the main issue, i.e. the real state of affairs.
3. Methodology
In any case, the present study is an original research which is the outcome of my own personal reflections and, except in one or two cases where I have taken some terms from Doležel research, I am not indebted to any research in terms of my theoretical framework.
4. Results
The present study shows that regarding the literary world as a possible world implies the self-sufficiency of the work, and therefore the difference between a literary work and, say, a historical work, is that internal forces play an important role in its construction. This, in itself, entails the suspension of the referential function of the language. In this way, the particular signification of a literary work is not achieved by its correspondence to the outside world, but generally by the internal order of the work. For this reason, explaining the mechanism of truth and falsity of propositions in a possible literary world shows greater efficiency when it is based on the consistency theory of truth. Examining the axioms of the possible literary world shows that the self-sufficiency of a literary work is not only in line with contextualism in its phenomenological and linguistic sense, but also reveals some of the most important features of this world. For example, the form of thought in the possible literary world, although it has similarities with scientific thought, but as long as the work tends towards self-sufficiency, the form of thought is based on different perceptions of concepts such as objectivity, time, place and causality. In terms of semantic as well as ontological integrity, the possible literary world expands along a continuum, in which the tendency for wholeness in the work is maximal in one end and minimal on the other. What makes the possible literary world different from the real word is the fact that unlike the real world, in which imperfection is considered as an existential or semantic defect, in the literary world, imperfection is considered as an aesthetic feature. This is firstly because a part or parts of the identity of phenomena and characters are existentially revealed in such a world, which allows the generation of prototypical or ideal examples, and on the other hand, from the point of view of perception theory, imperfection itself acts as a factor which increases the range of a reader's collaboration in the recreation of the final meaning and thus makes the meaning more plural and fluid. This issue justifies the semantic and ontological heterogeneity, the presence of phenomena and the possible characters in the possible literary world. In fact, as long as the intellectual, linguistic or stylistic system of the author and the work act as a macro-structure which deprives the subject of his/her agency, the literary tradition acts as a channel that leads to the creation of similar formal and thematic works, but the literary world due to its lack of adherence to homogeneity becomes dynamic. This dynamism is basically the result of the absorption of paradox in the literary system. Obviously, the presence of paradox in the literary world leads to a constant dialectical becoming. Accordingly, paradox, as an estrange object, enters the system, upsets it, and eventually becomes a part of it. Thus, although the literary tradition entails fixation and stagnation, the literary world is always elusive due to the lack of adherence to ontological or semantic similarity. In the end, it became clear that when we examine the literary world from the perspective of the theory of reception, understanding the cohesion and coherence of the text and thus the textual significance of the work entails superseding the mimetic reading- which is common to historical and scientific texts- and adapting a semiotic reading. Such a reading focuses on those signs that gain their value through ungrammaticality and non-coexistence with the other components of the literary work.
3. Methodology
In any case, the present study is an original research which is the outcome of my own personal reflections and, except in one or two cases where I have taken some terms from Doležel research, I am not indebted to any research in terms of my theoretical framework.
4. Results
The present study shows that regarding the literary world as a possible world implies the self-sufficiency of the work, and therefore the difference between a literary work and, say, a historical work, is that internal forces play an important role in its construction. This, in itself, entails the suspension of the referential function of the language. In this way, the particular signification of a literary work is not achieved by its correspondence to the outside world, but generally by the internal order of the work. For this reason, explaining the mechanism of truth and falsity of propositions in a possible literary world shows greater efficiency when it is based on the consistency theory of truth. Examining the axioms of the possible literary world shows that the self-sufficiency of a literary work is not only in line with contextualism in its phenomenological and linguistic sense, but also reveals some of the most important features of this world. For example, the form of thought in the possible literary world, although it has similarities with scientific thought, but as long as the work tends towards self-sufficiency, the form of thought is based on different perceptions of concepts such as objectivity, time, place and causality. In terms of semantic as well as ontological integrity, the possible literary world expands along a continuum, in which the tendency for wholeness in the work is maximal in one end and minimal on the other. What makes the possible literary world different from the real word is the fact that unlike the real world, in which imperfection is considered as an existential or semantic defect, in the literary world, imperfection is considered as an aesthetic feature. This is firstly because a part or parts of the identity of phenomena and characters are existentially revealed in such a world, which allows the generation of prototypical or ideal examples, and on the other hand, from the point of view of perception theory, imperfection itself acts as a factor which increases the range of a reader's collaboration in the recreation of the final meaning and thus makes the meaning more plural and fluid. This issue justifies the semantic and ontological heterogeneity, the presence of phenomena and the possible characters in the possible literary world. In fact, as long as the intellectual, linguistic or stylistic system of the author and the work act as a macro-structure which deprives the subject of his/her agency, the literary tradition acts as a channel that leads to the creation of similar formal and thematic works, but the literary world due to its lack of adherence to homogeneity becomes dynamic. This dynamism is basically the result of the absorption of paradox in the literary system. Obviously, the presence of paradox in the literary world leads to a constant dialectical becoming. Accordingly, paradox, as an estrange object, enters the system, upsets it, and eventually becomes a part of it. Thus, although the literary tradition entails fixation and stagnation, the literary world is always elusive due to the lack of adherence to ontological or semantic similarity. In the end, it became clear that when we examine the literary world from the perspective of the theory of reception, understanding the cohesion and coherence of the text and thus the textual significance of the work entails superseding the mimetic reading- which is common to historical and scientific texts- and adapting a semiotic reading. Such a reading focuses on those signs that gain their value through ungrammaticality and non-coexistence with the other components of the literary work.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 15, Issue 58 (8-2022)
Volume 15, Issue 58 (8-2022)
Abstract
Mimesis, as one of the fundamental views on the nature of art and literature, has always been a dominant theory in the philosophy of art from ancient Greece to the eighteenth century. In the contemporary period, thinkers such as Auerbach, Gerard, and followers of the Chicago School - each from a particular perspective - have given a new reading of it. However, mimesis is essentially an anti-formalist theory that focuses on the state of affairs in the real world due to its adherence to the principle of reference. Accordingly, the theory of imitation implies the examination of the truth and falsity of works of art based on the principle of conformity and attention to the referential function of language. This is why mimesis in Plato's system of thought leads to his anti-artistic stance. However, the present study has emerged from the heart of the tradition of imitation in the philosophy of art. Relying on the principles of the theory of mimesis, it has tried to examine the origins of this view and make arguments according to which mimesis, in case it addresses the form and not the subject of mimesis, has the potential to become, in a new reading, an introduction to formalist theory and not necessarily an alternative or competing theory. In this research, it becomes clear that mimesis in its specific meaning, in the first place, requires the abstraction of the form of affairs. In the second place, the abstracted form is reconfigured and takes on a new form based on the artistic matter (which, in verbal art, is language and its signs). In this way, the truth and falsity of the work of art in this case is possible not by referring the extra-text or the outside world but by examining the internal system of the work. This entails the self-sufficiency of the work of art, which is one of the fundamental traits of formalism.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Mimesis is one of the fundamental theories in the philosophy of art and literature, under which the nature and essence of art is discussed. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of the role of mimesis and its importance in explaining the mechanism of the work of art, we first briefly mention those key questions that are addressed under the common views on the philosophy of art, and then the issues that we believe are related to the theory of mimesis. We are then detremined to yield each question a suitable answer.
The fundamental viewpoints about the philosophy of art and literature can be divided into four groups (cf. Abrams, 1953: 3-46): a. The first viewpoint focuses on the "what" of the work of art and basically deals with the issue of representation. According to this view, art is like a mirror that represents the outside world; But the problem is, which category of phenomena, actions, state of affairs or human deeds is going to be represented and through what means. The theory of mimesis is placed under this viewpoint. b) The second point of view focuses on the "how" of the creation of the work of art and basically deals with those artistic arrangements that transform the raw material of art into a desirable and ideal form of art. Formalism, and new criticism can be examined under this section. c) The third point of view is directed towards the creator of the art work or to "who" is the author of the work. From this perspective, the social, historical and psychological contexts of the author are important. It is obvious that examining the position of the artist or the author in order to examine the work is one of the most important concerns of such viewpoints. The subject of poesis is examined under this point of view. d) The fourth point of view focuses on the purpose of the work of art and answers the question "why". This point of view generally pays attention to the audience of art and consequently the moral, rhetorical and telological purposes of the work of art are examined under this viewpoint. In this way, according to the first point of view, in case the subject of art or literature is limited to the state of affairs in the world, it seems that documentary cinema, photography, historiography, biography and realist or naturalist novels are more original in comparison with other genres and literary types. However, the question still remains whether the theory of mimesis is limited to these aesthetic boundaries and if it could examine all literary and artistic genres from this static point of view, or it is bound to change in a way that it does not neglect any longer other aspects related to the nature and value of art. In the same way, if a literary theory claims that the literary work is aimed at the representation of the outside world, the question still remains that through what means/devices the representation itself is possible. Accordingly, is it necessart that the concept of the outside world, the state of affairs and nature be expanded in such a way that the theory of mimesis includes all forms of art, or should the conceptual scope of mimesis be limited in such a way that those forms of arts just due to their not being included under the concept of mimesis are automatically removed from the ideal concept of art, or else interpreted as non-original works. In order to answer these questions, the present research, while paying attention to the theoretical considerations about the theory of mimesis, in the first stage analyzes the issue of reference and the principle of correspondence in works of art to clarify whether non-mimetic representation is necessarily non-referential or is it dependent on it. For this reason, after differentiating mimesis into two general and specific types, we argue how the form of mimesis makes the work of art be dependent upon the referential theory while simultaneously evade it. As a result, the present research finally reveals the arrangements through which the form of mimesis, as a non-semantic layer, has a potential to be semanticized.
Results: Examining the theory of mimesis from the perspective of the form and not the subject of mimesis reveals that despite the common idea about "mimesis in its general sense" according to which mimesis is based on the representation of the outside world, the scrutiny of how mimesis works through special artistic means and arrangements revelas that in " mimesis in its specific sense" the principle of reference is suspended. Based on the principle of reference, the representation of the outside world requires paying attention to the examplars, the state of affairs and the world as a whole. However, this study shows that mimesis in a specific sense not only suspends the principle of reference, but also expands the concept of the outside world to the concept of the possible world. Therefore, in case there is a reference in the context of art, it is considered as art’s secondary purpose. Indeed, such a reference is not necessarily directed to the outside world in its general sense, but operates in a wider realm of possible worlds. According to such a reading, which is the result of the writer's reflections, mimesis theory- in the sense that we apply- adheres to one principle in order to represent the world, i.e. mimesis entails the reflection of the state of affairs. But reflecting the state of affairs, according to our arguments in this research, can be done in two ways; One by paying attention to the content of mimesis and the other by paying attention to the form of mimesis. The content of mimesis is related to determining the truth and falsity of propsitions. Their truth and falsity can thus be checked by referring to the possible world. Of course, we note that the conditions of truth and falsity in possible worlds are variable, and in fact, each possible world imposes its own conditions on the truth and falsity of propsitions. Above all, content mimesis ultimately does not imply the negation of the referability of artistic propositions. On the other hand, the form of mimesis is not necessarily true or false, although it does not fundamentally negate it. This means that when representation is made through specific mimesis, rather than the content of the state of affairs or the subject of the mimesis, it is the logical form or form of affairs that becomes important, so the artist, while paying attention to the state of affairs, which is considered extratextual, abstracts the logical form of the events or situations and takes them in his work. This logical form has the ability to reproduce a new situation with the specific raw materials of the work of art, which on the one hand is symmetrical - and not necessarily compatible - with the outside world, and on the other hand has its own special logic due to the dominance of the work's internal system. It is worth noting that the internal system of art provides the possibility that the non-semantic layers of the work, which are non-referential, are semanticized, and in this way their referentiality would reappear in another way. It is obvious that the referential function in this case has a secondary function, and its originality as well as its artistic value depends on its relational value within the system.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Mimesis is one of the fundamental theories in the philosophy of art and literature, under which the nature and essence of art is discussed. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of the role of mimesis and its importance in explaining the mechanism of the work of art, we first briefly mention those key questions that are addressed under the common views on the philosophy of art, and then the issues that we believe are related to the theory of mimesis. We are then detremined to yield each question a suitable answer.
The fundamental viewpoints about the philosophy of art and literature can be divided into four groups (cf. Abrams, 1953: 3-46): a. The first viewpoint focuses on the "what" of the work of art and basically deals with the issue of representation. According to this view, art is like a mirror that represents the outside world; But the problem is, which category of phenomena, actions, state of affairs or human deeds is going to be represented and through what means. The theory of mimesis is placed under this viewpoint. b) The second point of view focuses on the "how" of the creation of the work of art and basically deals with those artistic arrangements that transform the raw material of art into a desirable and ideal form of art. Formalism, and new criticism can be examined under this section. c) The third point of view is directed towards the creator of the art work or to "who" is the author of the work. From this perspective, the social, historical and psychological contexts of the author are important. It is obvious that examining the position of the artist or the author in order to examine the work is one of the most important concerns of such viewpoints. The subject of poesis is examined under this point of view. d) The fourth point of view focuses on the purpose of the work of art and answers the question "why". This point of view generally pays attention to the audience of art and consequently the moral, rhetorical and telological purposes of the work of art are examined under this viewpoint. In this way, according to the first point of view, in case the subject of art or literature is limited to the state of affairs in the world, it seems that documentary cinema, photography, historiography, biography and realist or naturalist novels are more original in comparison with other genres and literary types. However, the question still remains whether the theory of mimesis is limited to these aesthetic boundaries and if it could examine all literary and artistic genres from this static point of view, or it is bound to change in a way that it does not neglect any longer other aspects related to the nature and value of art. In the same way, if a literary theory claims that the literary work is aimed at the representation of the outside world, the question still remains that through what means/devices the representation itself is possible. Accordingly, is it necessart that the concept of the outside world, the state of affairs and nature be expanded in such a way that the theory of mimesis includes all forms of art, or should the conceptual scope of mimesis be limited in such a way that those forms of arts just due to their not being included under the concept of mimesis are automatically removed from the ideal concept of art, or else interpreted as non-original works. In order to answer these questions, the present research, while paying attention to the theoretical considerations about the theory of mimesis, in the first stage analyzes the issue of reference and the principle of correspondence in works of art to clarify whether non-mimetic representation is necessarily non-referential or is it dependent on it. For this reason, after differentiating mimesis into two general and specific types, we argue how the form of mimesis makes the work of art be dependent upon the referential theory while simultaneously evade it. As a result, the present research finally reveals the arrangements through which the form of mimesis, as a non-semantic layer, has a potential to be semanticized.
Results: Examining the theory of mimesis from the perspective of the form and not the subject of mimesis reveals that despite the common idea about "mimesis in its general sense" according to which mimesis is based on the representation of the outside world, the scrutiny of how mimesis works through special artistic means and arrangements revelas that in " mimesis in its specific sense" the principle of reference is suspended. Based on the principle of reference, the representation of the outside world requires paying attention to the examplars, the state of affairs and the world as a whole. However, this study shows that mimesis in a specific sense not only suspends the principle of reference, but also expands the concept of the outside world to the concept of the possible world. Therefore, in case there is a reference in the context of art, it is considered as art’s secondary purpose. Indeed, such a reference is not necessarily directed to the outside world in its general sense, but operates in a wider realm of possible worlds. According to such a reading, which is the result of the writer's reflections, mimesis theory- in the sense that we apply- adheres to one principle in order to represent the world, i.e. mimesis entails the reflection of the state of affairs. But reflecting the state of affairs, according to our arguments in this research, can be done in two ways; One by paying attention to the content of mimesis and the other by paying attention to the form of mimesis. The content of mimesis is related to determining the truth and falsity of propsitions. Their truth and falsity can thus be checked by referring to the possible world. Of course, we note that the conditions of truth and falsity in possible worlds are variable, and in fact, each possible world imposes its own conditions on the truth and falsity of propsitions. Above all, content mimesis ultimately does not imply the negation of the referability of artistic propositions. On the other hand, the form of mimesis is not necessarily true or false, although it does not fundamentally negate it. This means that when representation is made through specific mimesis, rather than the content of the state of affairs or the subject of the mimesis, it is the logical form or form of affairs that becomes important, so the artist, while paying attention to the state of affairs, which is considered extratextual, abstracts the logical form of the events or situations and takes them in his work. This logical form has the ability to reproduce a new situation with the specific raw materials of the work of art, which on the one hand is symmetrical - and not necessarily compatible - with the outside world, and on the other hand has its own special logic due to the dominance of the work's internal system. It is worth noting that the internal system of art provides the possibility that the non-semantic layers of the work, which are non-referential, are semanticized, and in this way their referentiality would reappear in another way. It is obvious that the referential function in this case has a secondary function, and its originality as well as its artistic value depends on its relational value within the system.
Volume 19, Issue 77 (12-2022)
Abstract
Theory of mental spaces is a theory derived from the theory of possible worlds. This theory and its derived theory, conceptual blending, are useful tools for text analysis in the field of cognitive poetics. The purpose of this study is to investigate how these theories encounter Persian poetry. To examine the application of these theories in the analysis of Persian poetry, we first discuss their philosophical aspects and theoretical foundations, and then test how they work in a lyric by Saadi. The results of the present study show that the theory of mental spaces, despite its generally appropriate function, in some positions such as allegorical structures, does not have the necessary efficiency in semantic analysis of poetry and in such circumstances, the theory derived from that, theory of conceptual blending, can cover the functional vacuum. We have also shown that the theory of mental spaces is a tool that explains and analyzes the linguistic nature of ambiguity, as one of the most important elements of rhetoric in poetry.
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