Dash Akol, the renowned hero of Shiraz, is one of the most prominent figures in Iranian folk and formal literature, with various narratives about his life and character in the local folklore of Shiraz. Inspired by these narratives, Sadegh Hedayat wrote the short story "Dash Akol" in 1932. Hedayat’s storytelling prowess and widespread reputation led his version to gradually become the dominant and established narrative of Dash Akol, ultimately overshadowing and erasing other local accounts. The alterations Hedayat introduced into the story profoundly shaped a new image of Dash Akol, transforming him into a flawless hero embodying ideals of masculinity and moral chastity. These changes not only reinvented the character but also reflected the cultural and social transformations in early 20th-century Iran, which were widely championed by intellectuals and writers. This study seeks to distance itself from Hedayat’s established narrative and instead examine alternative accounts of Dash Akol found in local Shirazi sources. These narratives often fundamentally differ from Hedayat’s version, offering distinct portrayals of Dash Akol’s physical traits, romantic relationships, and his death. The paper explores the cultural and literary motivations behind Hedayat’s revisions, demonstrating how his idealization of Dash Akol constructed a new mythical hero that aligned with the era’s cultural shifts and was likely influenced by Iran’s mystical, mythical, and intellectual discourses. This reconstruction not only reveals the interplay between dominant narratives and cultural change but also provides fresh insights into the adaptation of folklore into modern literary frameworks.

Introduction
Dāsh Ākol, the legendary pahlavān (hero) of Shiraz, holds a unique position in both Iranian folk and formal literature. Rooted in the culture of lūtīgarī (urban chivalry) and javānmardī (chivalric ethics) of Shiraz, numerous oral narratives about his bravery, conflicts, and life have circulated among the city’s inhabitants. Inspired by these local tales, Sadegh Hedayat, the pioneering modernist Iranian writer, penned the short story Dāsh Ākol in 1932. Hedayat’s literary prowess and his status as a prominent intellectual figure gradually elevated his version to the status of the “official” and canonical narrative of Dāsh Ākol, overshadowing other local accounts. This study critically examines this process, arguing that Hedayat’s alterations in representing Dāsh Ākol’s character not only reflect Iran’s sociocultural transformations in the early 20th century but also embody the intellectual efforts to redefine national identity through literature.


Theoretical background
This study is grounded in two key concepts of narratology: canonical narrative and alternative narratives. Drawing on Monika Fludernik’s Towards a Natural Narratology (1996), canonical narratives are products of the cultural and institutional power of dominant groups, sustained through repetition and naturalization. These narratives often homogenize reality by marginalizing or distorting peripheral voices. Gerald Prince, in Narratology: The Form and Functioning of Narrative (1982), emphasizes the significance of alternative narratives, which emerge from oral

Main Discussion
Physical attributes: From imperfection to idealization
In Shirazi oral traditions, Dāsh Ākol is described with notable physical disabilities: his right hand is severed, and his left leg is amputated. The term “kal” in the Shirazi dialect, meaning “disabled,” refers to these traits, portraying him as vulnerable and flawed. However, Hedayat eliminates these imperfections. His Dāsh Ākol is a “burly man with a noble face,” bearing only facial scars. This transformation idealizes him as a paragon of physical and moral perfection, reminiscent of the “ensān-e kāmel” (perfect human) in Iranian mysticism.

Romantic relationships: From taboo to noble love
Local sources rarely mention Dāsh Ākol’s romantic engagements, except for a rare account from Kākā Rostam’s follower. According to this narrative, Dāsh Ākol harbored a romantic attachment to a young male follower who had a sexual relationship with Marjān. To protect the follower, Dāsh Ākol falsely claimed responsibility. Such homoerotic undertones align with lūtīgarī traditions. Hedayat, however, reconfigures this entirely. In his story, Dāsh Ākol secretly loves Marjān, the daughter of Hājji Samad, concealing his passion until death. This shift is not merely literary but reflects early 20th-century social changes. Intellectuals sought to purge “immoral” elements (e.g., homosexuality) from literature to redefine a “modern” Iranian identity. By substituting heteronormative love, Hedayat refashions Dāsh Ākol into a paragon of chastity compatible with emerging modern ethics.

Death: From rrebel to victim of unjust murder
Local narratives attribute Dāsh Ākol’s death to his conflict with Alā al-Dawla, the ruler of Fars. One account claims he was betrayed, arrested during a sanctuary in Shahcheragh Shrine, and tortured to death. Hedayat, however, reimagines his death as a duel with Kākā Rostam, who treacherously stabs him from behind. This unjust murder evokes Shi’ite paradigms (e.g., Imam Hussein) and mythic Iranian tropes (e.g., Siavash), symbolizing heroic sacrifice marred by betrayal. By aligning Dāsh Ākol’s demise with these archetypes, Hedayat elevates him to a timeless, transcendent hero.

The analysis of Hedayat’s motivations
Hedayat’s revisions align with early 20th-century intellectual projects:
Sanitization: Transforming Dāsh Ākol into an idealized “perfect human” embodying national virtues (chivalry, loyalty, chastity).
Modernization: Erasing non-normative elements (homosexuality) and replacing them with romantic love, compatible with modern morality.
Mythmaking: Framing his death through Iranian-Islamic tragic tropes to foster audience empathy.
National Identity: Crafting a hero rooted in tradition yet harmonized with modern ideals.

Conclusion
Hedayat’s Dāsh Ākol is not merely a literary adaptation of Shirazi folklore but a project to redefine Iranian cultural identity on modernity’s threshold. By erasing physical flaws, reconfiguring romance, and reconstructing heroic death, Hedayat creates a character that bridges Iran’s mystical heritage and the needs of a transitioning society. These changes highlight the power of canonical narratives in shaping collective memory while underscoring the necessity of alternative narratives to uncover historical complexities.
This study demonstrates that literature not only reflects reality but actively reconstructs it. Hedayat skillfully reframed folklore into a modern mold to bolster national identity and advance intellectual discourse. However, reviving alternative narratives allows us to critique this process and unearth hidden historical layers. Ultimately, the article emphasizes preserving narrative diversity and resisting cultural homogenization.
 

Abstract
Sufi narratives are ever susceptive to psychoanalytic studies per the extent of their detailed experiences and also their main function, which is to incite a kind of “mystical experience” in the reader. Accordingly, the present study attempts to introduce a novel classification of these narratives in line with the psychoanalytic concept of “transference”. In this classification, the selection of Sufi narratives and the anecdotes of Asrār-al-Tawḥid in particular, are regarded as a macro-narrative that depicts the process of psychotherapy with a focus on the concept of transference. Each micro-narrative could be categorized under one of the stages involved within the process. In this point of view, the function of most of the anecdotal narratives (Taḍkiras) is apt to be seen as corresponding to one or a number of these stages. In effect, the reader of a single text encounters all these stages in different ways, albeit in a non-linear process, by the end of the reading. These stages, defined by reference to Freudʼs views and his structuralist follower, Lacan's, are listed as: 1) establishing the subject supposed to know, 2) resistance/denial, 3) the random object of the sign, and 4) mission. Yet, the choice of Asrār al-Tawḥid in this case study has been due to several reasons, including the inclusion of morer diverse narratives than other anecdotal narratives as well as the profound impact of this text on the later Sufi narratives.
Extended Abstract
Introduction: Farzi and Pourkhaleghi Chatroudi (2009) have studied “the imaginaryˮ and “the realˮ in the personality of “Harun al-Rashid”, which is relevant to some remarks of this study. Paul (2014, translated by Ghafoori, 2016, p. 28) has implicitly highlighted the status similarity between the psychoanalyst and “walī” i.e. Sufi master. Dehghani Yazdeli and Edraki (2019, p. 149) have adopted the term “impulse” to refer to the stimulus for the evolution of narrative characters, which is corresponding to the interpretation of “the random object of the sign” in this study. Barati Khansari and Ebnali Charmhini (2020, p. 287) have referred to the “occult knowledge of the helping person” in Proppʼs views, which is linked to the concept of the “subject supposed to know,” in the present study.
Goals, Questions, Assumptions: The present discussion is subject to the reader-response psychological critique. In terms of psychoanalytic critique, the anecdote genre occupies a unique status within the Sufi texts. In the present article, the collection of Sufi narratives is regarded as a macro-narrative that depicts the process of psychotherapy with a focus on the concept of “transference,” and each micro-narrative is categorized as one of the stages involved in this process.
 
Discussion: Classification of Narratives
1. Establishing the Subject Supposed to Know
The subject supposed to know (cf. Evans, 2006, p. 214) is, in fact, the psychoanalyst himself/herself, to whom the patient attributes such authority. The main function of many Sufi narratives is to establish the very subject. These narratives are divided into two groups: (1) Narratives in which the mystic conceals his identity from a common persona, and the person never recognizes the identity and name of the mystic. (2) Narrations in which the common persona recognizes the identity of the mystic by the denouement of the narrative. In the first category’s narratives, the mystical enjoyment and experience pertain solely to the “mystic” and the “reader.” In such narratives, the mystic/reader perceives the happenings from the level of the “absolute conscious,” i.e. God. In the second category’s narratives, the common persona also partakes in this mystical enjoyment and experience.
2. Resistance/Denial
For Lacan, resistance pertains to the “the imaginary.” The Sufiʼs aim in provoking denial in the disciple is to solidify the subject supposed to know. The author distinguishes two distinct patterns in resistance-oriented narratives: (1) “I know it is legitimate, but I do not do it.” In this model, the Sufi acts or speaks against common sense or custom or the authority of Sharia. (2) “I know it is illegitimate, but I do it.” Such narratives often include Malamati themes.
3. Random Object of the Sign
At this point, the resistance is broken and the object enters the signifying chain. The Aristotelian interpretation of this incident is “anagnorisis,” which implies the “transition from ignorance to knowledge” (Payendeh, 2018, p. 72). Lacan upholds two types of knowledge, namely the imaginary knowledge and symbolic knowledge (Evans, 2006, p. 96), the former of which pertains to the ego and the latter to the subject (ibid.); and achieving the latter is deemed as the aim of psychoanalysis. The only means of achieving this knowledge is through a particular form of speech designated as “free association” (ibid.). From a mystical point of view, the individual is pre-guided too, and the mystic presents the individual simply with random objects that act as the signifier of “that sign.” In many Sufi narratives, a particular theme is portrayed: the object sent by the mystic is regarded as a sign from God, leading to the transformation of the individual.
4. Mission
At this stage, the therapy/transformation process concludes and the individual’s pursuit/mission begins. The hero of such narratives is not a commoner on the verge of a spiritual revolution, but a mystic who has risen as the Caliph of God and bestows meaning upon creation and people’s deeds with his presence and effort, as the master signifier. According to Lacan, the mystic has evolved into a subject who fills the void of “the big Other”.
Conclusion: In classification and adaptation of the narratives to the psychoanalytic stages (both Freudian and Lacanian), the author highlights the association of each stage with the concept of “transference” - either as its preparation or consequence. Altogether, the study examines the entirety of the Asrār al-Tawḥidʼs narratives from the perspective of a single process (psychoanalysis), in which each narrative represents a fragment of the macro-narrative. The main function of the text in such a view is evoking the mystical experience in the reader, rediscovering symbolic knowledge, guiding, and ultimately, reminding one of one’s mission.