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Volume 7, Issue 28 (12-2014)
Volume 7, Issue 28 (12-2014)
Abstract
Abstract Text and power theoretical framework for critical interpretation of text In this study we have tried -to comment on the importance of text in social and literary research - to provide a theoretical framework for critical interpretation. Question of this research is : H ow text power does.To answer this question , we will review the theories of power in the humanities and social sciences . Two main theories have been proposed in this field . Rule-based theories in which emphasize power as a physical or class or governmental force. Other theories emphasize power as the discoursive or the lingual that applay Through subjective and desubjective processes. at For this purpose will read the votes of four of the most important contemporary theorists , Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe , Slavoj Žižek and Julia Kristeva until will be given research question. Finally, the responses of these theories will be presented .
Volume 12, Issue 56 (5-2024)
Abstract
Fantasy is a type of story that has been noticed in the literature of children and teenagers in recent years. The Possessed of Badyan Island is a teenage novel and a fantasy story written by Badri Mashhadhi. In the present research, this story has been analyzed in terms of the elements and structure of fantasy and climate literature by analytical-descriptive and library method. In this research, a new definition of the genre of fantasy has been presented under the title of climatic fantasy, and by examining the mentioned novel, it has been shown that the story of The Possessed of Badyan Island is a climatic fantasy. Also, by using the climatic fantasy genre, in addition to creating a gothic and scary story with a local atmosphere, the author not only satisfied the need for excitement of teenagers, but also directed the attention of teenagers from similar foreign to local and Iranian examples. It has also used the climate fantasy genre to familiarize the audience with the culture, history, customs, superstitions, etc. of a specific region. Therefore, this story can be considered an example of an Iranian climatic fantasy story.
Volume 13, Issue 62 (5-2025)
Abstract
Bahaar-e-Daanesh is one of the folk and ancient Indian legends in Persian language with the theme of love,written by Inaayatullaah Kanabweh Laahoori(died 1088 AH)who authored it in the year(1061 AH)under the name of Shah Jahaan Gurkaani. This book is part of fiction literature, that is,the intersection of folk and literary stories and in the Indian storytelling style, a story within a story. Its main and long story is fictional and its theme is the love of "Bahre-Varbaanu and Jahaandaarshaah" and the theme of the main story and its main sub-stories are stories about women's tricks. In the spring of knowledge, themes such as shape-shifting, spells, magic, incarnation in a shape-shifting state, awareness of the science of dismembering the body,and the transfer of the soul from one body to another can be seen throughout the stories. In addition, the presence and conquest of Divan and ghouls,talking with magical animals, using the magic in the elements of nature,etc. are present in all the stories. In this article, the functions of magic and its helpers,objects and tools of magic and the ways of using them, magical trips and places and surreal beings,ways to achieve magic factors and nullifiers. Magic and talismans in the stories of Bahaar-e-Daanesh have been examined and analyzed to emphasize the importance of studying,knowing and preserving the cultural and social background of folk tales,which is the most important platform for the presence and manifestation of mythological and ancient themes among the masses. It is the people - to be emphasized.
Introduction
Bahar-e- Danesh (Spring of Knowledge) is a folk and ancient Indian tale in Persian with a love theme, written by Inayatullah Kanabweh Lahori (died 1088 AH) who composed it in 1061 AH under the name Shah Jahan Gurkani. This book is a part of fictional literature, that is, the intersection of folk and literary tales, and in the Indian storytelling style, a story within a story. Its main and long story is fictional and its subject is the love of “Bahreh-ur-Rabano and Jahandar Shah” and the theme of the main story and its most important sub-stories are tales of women’s cunning. In the Spring of Knowledge, themes such as shapeshifting, spells, magic, incarnation in a state of shapeshifting, awareness of the science of disembowelment and the transfer of the soul from one body to another are seen throughout the stories. The presence and possession of demons and ghouls, speaking with magical animals, taking advantage of the magic found in the elements of nature, etc. are present in all the stories. In this study, the functions of magic and its helpers, magical objects and tools and methods of using them, magical journeys and places and supernatural beings, ways to achieve magic factors and nullifiers of magic and spells in the stories of the Spring of Knowledge are examined and analyzed in order to further emphasize the importance of studying, being aware of, and preserving the cultural and social background of folk tales - which are the most important basis for the presence and manifestation of mythological and ancient motifs among the masses of people.
Research Background
Until now, no independent research has been written about the book Bahar Danesh from the perspective of examining and analyzing the functions of magic and magic and fantasy elements. However, the following researches are noteworthy. Zolfaghari (2013) has studied the text of the book and examined some of its stylistic and content values. Reyhaneh (2001) has examined the structure and characteristics of the literary style of the book. Qanbili (2019) has examined the characters of this work from the perspective of a social approach and relies more on the opinions of social criticism.
Goals, questions, and assumptions
Folk tales are treasures of human culture and civilization, and spells and enchantments are created based on unreal matters that contain moral advice and confront the audience with an imaginary and imaginary world. "Mass literature is a product of the lives of the common people, both in terms of the subject matter of stories and songs and in other aspects." (Khalatbari-Sultani, 2012, p. 32). On the other hand, the stories of Bahar Danesh are full of strange events, in them imaginary creatures such as demons, fairies, and ghouls have a great impact, and there is a lot of talk about magic and sorcery. “Magical tools are tools and devices with extraordinary and magical power, and their owner can perform miraculous deeds or protect himself from dangers” (Jahanshahi Afshar and Jihadi. Hosseini, 2017, p. 120).
Main discussion
In Indian stories, especially Bahar Danesh, connection with supernatural beings and references to their supernatural powers have been raised alongside the presence of Indian ascetics and Brahmins. The existence of roots of a philosophical trend in India that considers supernatural beings to have personality and perception has imperceptibly attributed women to magic and witchcraft in the misogynistic Indian culture. Even today, traces of such behaviors can be found among the general public. "By resorting to these ideas, man tried to somehow escape from the unbearable suffering and to shift it onto someone else's shoulders" (Fraser, 2007, p. 593).
After examining Bahar Danesh from the perspective of the function of magic and fantasy motifs, it became clear that the dominant aspect of this work is magic; to the extent that sometimes the realistic aspect of the work is greatly diminished, and this is in contrast to Iranian folk tales, which, although one of the fundamental motifs of these works is magic, this issue has been used in a more balanced way in Iranian tales. In Bahar Danesh, one can find many ancient motifs in the thought of early man, such as animism, personalization of objects and phenomena, the ability to speak with animals and plants, metamorphosis, etc. This indicates that the world before the creation of humans was occupied and roamed by supernatural beings. With the creation of humans, they inevitably rushed to the underworld and lived in the neighborhood of humans. From here, their eternal enmity, bloody conflicts, and revenge against humanity began.
Conclusion
Magic and fantasy elements are seen in Bahar Danesh with themes such as spells or magic and incarnation in the form of changing one's appearance to help the hero of the story, the science of disrobing and transferring the soul, stealing the bride, deceiving the hero, traveling to the world of magic, tricking women, attracting the hero of the story, meeting the beloved, hiding the identity, etc. Spells and magic are used with goals such as punishing, seducing the hero of the story's girl and marrying her, envying the hero, deceiving others, helping, among others. Reincarnation is also used with the aim of revealing the secret of murder, compensating the hero for his kindness and helping him, punishing, and so on.
On the other hand, in these stories, every phenomenon, including real, imaginary, and imaginary animals, plants, imaginary and real objects, and humanoids, has a magical function. Some of these tools are fixed, while others change with time, place, and situation. Some are magical in their essence, and others are given magical properties by human magic that has spiritual dimensions or by the hands of a magician through a spell. They are often used to help the protagonist and to guide the forces of good and evil. The emergence of supernatural factors and forces, magical journeys and places such as mysterious palaces, enchanted gardens, wells and dark spaces, demons, fairies, dragons, magic, anesthetics, sand and astrolabes, magical fruits, etc. are among the main and constructive elements of the stories of the Spring of Knowledge. Some magical tools are activated by functions such as fire (a sacred element in India and a particularly important aspect of symbolism in Indian philosophy), and fire plays a role as the initial actor in performing magic.
References
Jahanshahi Afshar, A., & Jihadi Hosseini, A. (2017). Magic and sorcery in the story of the famous Amir Arsalan. Popular Culture and Literature, 18, 114-131.
Khalatbari Soltani, S. (2012). The element of imagination in illustrating folk tales. Master's Thesis. Islamic Azad University, Tehran Central Branch.
Fraser, J. (2007). The Golden bough (A study in magic and religion) (translated by K. Firouzmand). Aghah.
Introduction
Bahar-e- Danesh (Spring of Knowledge) is a folk and ancient Indian tale in Persian with a love theme, written by Inayatullah Kanabweh Lahori (died 1088 AH) who composed it in 1061 AH under the name Shah Jahan Gurkani. This book is a part of fictional literature, that is, the intersection of folk and literary tales, and in the Indian storytelling style, a story within a story. Its main and long story is fictional and its subject is the love of “Bahreh-ur-Rabano and Jahandar Shah” and the theme of the main story and its most important sub-stories are tales of women’s cunning. In the Spring of Knowledge, themes such as shapeshifting, spells, magic, incarnation in a state of shapeshifting, awareness of the science of disembowelment and the transfer of the soul from one body to another are seen throughout the stories. The presence and possession of demons and ghouls, speaking with magical animals, taking advantage of the magic found in the elements of nature, etc. are present in all the stories. In this study, the functions of magic and its helpers, magical objects and tools and methods of using them, magical journeys and places and supernatural beings, ways to achieve magic factors and nullifiers of magic and spells in the stories of the Spring of Knowledge are examined and analyzed in order to further emphasize the importance of studying, being aware of, and preserving the cultural and social background of folk tales - which are the most important basis for the presence and manifestation of mythological and ancient motifs among the masses of people.
Research Background
Until now, no independent research has been written about the book Bahar Danesh from the perspective of examining and analyzing the functions of magic and magic and fantasy elements. However, the following researches are noteworthy. Zolfaghari (2013) has studied the text of the book and examined some of its stylistic and content values. Reyhaneh (2001) has examined the structure and characteristics of the literary style of the book. Qanbili (2019) has examined the characters of this work from the perspective of a social approach and relies more on the opinions of social criticism.
Goals, questions, and assumptions
Folk tales are treasures of human culture and civilization, and spells and enchantments are created based on unreal matters that contain moral advice and confront the audience with an imaginary and imaginary world. "Mass literature is a product of the lives of the common people, both in terms of the subject matter of stories and songs and in other aspects." (Khalatbari-Sultani, 2012, p. 32). On the other hand, the stories of Bahar Danesh are full of strange events, in them imaginary creatures such as demons, fairies, and ghouls have a great impact, and there is a lot of talk about magic and sorcery. “Magical tools are tools and devices with extraordinary and magical power, and their owner can perform miraculous deeds or protect himself from dangers” (Jahanshahi Afshar and Jihadi. Hosseini, 2017, p. 120).
Main discussion
In Indian stories, especially Bahar Danesh, connection with supernatural beings and references to their supernatural powers have been raised alongside the presence of Indian ascetics and Brahmins. The existence of roots of a philosophical trend in India that considers supernatural beings to have personality and perception has imperceptibly attributed women to magic and witchcraft in the misogynistic Indian culture. Even today, traces of such behaviors can be found among the general public. "By resorting to these ideas, man tried to somehow escape from the unbearable suffering and to shift it onto someone else's shoulders" (Fraser, 2007, p. 593).
After examining Bahar Danesh from the perspective of the function of magic and fantasy motifs, it became clear that the dominant aspect of this work is magic; to the extent that sometimes the realistic aspect of the work is greatly diminished, and this is in contrast to Iranian folk tales, which, although one of the fundamental motifs of these works is magic, this issue has been used in a more balanced way in Iranian tales. In Bahar Danesh, one can find many ancient motifs in the thought of early man, such as animism, personalization of objects and phenomena, the ability to speak with animals and plants, metamorphosis, etc. This indicates that the world before the creation of humans was occupied and roamed by supernatural beings. With the creation of humans, they inevitably rushed to the underworld and lived in the neighborhood of humans. From here, their eternal enmity, bloody conflicts, and revenge against humanity began.
Conclusion
Magic and fantasy elements are seen in Bahar Danesh with themes such as spells or magic and incarnation in the form of changing one's appearance to help the hero of the story, the science of disrobing and transferring the soul, stealing the bride, deceiving the hero, traveling to the world of magic, tricking women, attracting the hero of the story, meeting the beloved, hiding the identity, etc. Spells and magic are used with goals such as punishing, seducing the hero of the story's girl and marrying her, envying the hero, deceiving others, helping, among others. Reincarnation is also used with the aim of revealing the secret of murder, compensating the hero for his kindness and helping him, punishing, and so on.
On the other hand, in these stories, every phenomenon, including real, imaginary, and imaginary animals, plants, imaginary and real objects, and humanoids, has a magical function. Some of these tools are fixed, while others change with time, place, and situation. Some are magical in their essence, and others are given magical properties by human magic that has spiritual dimensions or by the hands of a magician through a spell. They are often used to help the protagonist and to guide the forces of good and evil. The emergence of supernatural factors and forces, magical journeys and places such as mysterious palaces, enchanted gardens, wells and dark spaces, demons, fairies, dragons, magic, anesthetics, sand and astrolabes, magical fruits, etc. are among the main and constructive elements of the stories of the Spring of Knowledge. Some magical tools are activated by functions such as fire (a sacred element in India and a particularly important aspect of symbolism in Indian philosophy), and fire plays a role as the initial actor in performing magic.
References
Jahanshahi Afshar, A., & Jihadi Hosseini, A. (2017). Magic and sorcery in the story of the famous Amir Arsalan. Popular Culture and Literature, 18, 114-131.
Khalatbari Soltani, S. (2012). The element of imagination in illustrating folk tales. Master's Thesis. Islamic Azad University, Tehran Central Branch.
Fraser, J. (2007). The Golden bough (A study in magic and religion) (translated by K. Firouzmand). Aghah.
Hamed Shanaki, Samar Ehteshami,
Volume 15, Issue 59 (9-2022)
Volume 15, Issue 59 (9-2022)
Abstract
Literary proper names can perform various functions. In fantasy literature, which usually has its own dedicated secondary world, these functions are even more prevalent. Analyzing the translation of these names provides new insights for translators of the genre and literary translators in general. In that light, the present study was designed to analyze the translation of proper names in five fantasy novels. To conduct the research, first the proper names in fantasy novels were identified and their functions were determined based on Gibka’s model (2018). Then by analyzing the translation of the proper names from English to Persian, the translation strategies were identified and examined. After the analysis of data, it became evident that contrary to popular belief, non-translation is not always the best strategy for translating literary names. Based on the results, the strategy of translation never caused the loss of semantic function in the translated texts, while in some cases the non-translation strategy caused the loss. Moreover, non-translation never caused the loss of localization function. Therefore, choosing the translation strategy for proper names with secondary functions in mind will help translators transfer these functions to the target text more effectively.
Extended abstract
Introduction
Translation of proper names in fantasy literature can be a contentious topic among translators and theorists alike, since literary proper names can perform different functions within the narrative. The present research was conducted in order to determine the different functions of proper names in fantasy literature and the strategies employed for translating those names and to see if and how the translation strategy affects the proper name function in the target text.
Methodology
The present study was an empirical, descriptive and analytical research, conducted in order to analyze proper names and their translation in the fantasy genre. The corpus of this study was a parallel, bilingual one. It consisted of the novels, “Prince of Fools”, “The Liar's Key”, “Shadow and Bone”, “Everless”, and “Bone Season” and their Persian translations. These novels were translated to Persian within the last ten years (2014 – 2017) and could indicate recent trends in the translation of proper names in the fantasy genre in Iran.
The novels were wholly read with a purposive sampling method, and all of the proper names were extracted. Proper names were then classified using the eight relations and the twenty-two permanent secondary functions defined by Gibka (2018) which were applied to both the source text’s proper names and their translations in the target text. The data was analyzed at the lexical level. Each name along with the titles or other modifiers, were considered as one unit. Then, Van Coillie’s (2006) ten strategies for translating proper names were used as to analyze the translation of proper names.
Results and Discussion
In total 426 proper names were found and analyzed, out of which 214 had secondary functions. Among the proper names with secondary functions, the semantic function was the highest, followed by the localizing and sociological functions. Some of the proper names had two or three overlapping functions. Semantic and localizing were the two functions that overlapped the most (13 proper names), followed by localizing and sociological (11 proper names).
After the analysis, it became evident that most proper names’ functions stayed the same in the translation. All in all, no proper name changed its function in the process of translation and among proper names with no secondary functions, none gained new ones. However, there were cases in which the secondary function was lost or delayed in the process of translation.
Loss of function happened only for 11 semantic proper names and one localizing proper name, while no allusive and sociological proper name lost its function. The only translation strategy that caused the loss of function in semantic proper names was non-translation. Regarding the localizing proper name, phonetic adaptation was the strategy that caused the loss of function. Furthermore, delay of function happened for proper names with the semantic function and one proper name with the humorous function, and it only occurred when the proper name was transferred using the “non-translation plus additional explanation” strategy, where the additional strategy was in the form of a footnote or an endnote.
Conclusion
One of the important findings of this study was that while examining the translation strategies, some translation strategies were detected which had not been included in Van Coillie’s model (2006), namely combinations of different strategies, and in two cases, additional explanations added to a strategy other than non-translation (i.e. “replacement by a counterpart in the target language”, and “translation”). Furthermore, it did not relate the strategies to the secondary functions of literary proper names. However, the delay of function was the only issue that was not included in Gibka’s model (2018), which might be because this delay is probably specific to proper names in translated texts. Keeping this in mind, Gibka’s (2018) model can be effective for analyzing the translation of proper names in fantasy literature.
The results of this research can be useful for translation research and theory. This study showed that the “translation” strategy never caused the loss of the “semantic” function, while the “non-translation” strategy did cause this loss. So the “translation” strategy can potentially be an effective strategy for semantic proper names, while translator should be careful when using the “non-translation” strategy with semantic proper names, as the loss of function is likely to occur.
This can help translators who are working in the fantasy genre to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between the secondary functions of proper names and the translation strategies. The results of this research can also benefit translation students in classes such as “literary translation”, since it indicates the significance of proper names and the attention that their translation requires, specifically in the fantasy genre.
Farzad Baloo, Mostafa Mirdar Rezaei,
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Abstract
Contrary to the Western tradition, which has long occupied the minds and language of some philosophers with an irreconcilable conflict between philosophy and poetry, in our tradition, although philosophy is often mentioned as a curse, our philosophers have frequently maintained a positive attitude toward poetry. Among them, in the contemporary period, a philosopher named Mahmoud Homan stands out. This research examines and analyzes Homan’s views on poetry and related issues using a descriptive-analytical method—a topic that has been overlooked in contemporary research. The results of this research show that in his first intellectual period, Homan, inspired by the achievements of Western philosophers (Kant and Schopenhauer) and Iranian-Islamic philosophers (Shams Qays Roziy), as well as his own reflections on the nature and essence of poetry, considered rhythm, rhyme, and meter essential. From Shams Qays, he incorporates fantasy, expanding it conceptually with influences from Kant and Schopenhauer, while also adding the two conditions of grace and brevity. It is clear that this definition of poetry aligns more closely with the atmosphere of classical poetry. Additionally, he presents thoughtful observations about the cause of poetry’s effect in relation to poetic elements, the poet’s characteristics, the semantic foundations of descriptive and symbolic poetry, and a philosophical analysis of the power of imagination, among other topics. Following Kant, Homan does not attribute epistemological dimensions to poetry. However, in his second period of thought, Homan, influenced by Husserlian phenomenology, revisits his earlier definition of poetry with a focus on contemporary poetry, excluding features such as rhyme and meter as essential elements. Instead, he introduces a subjective-objective aspect to the beauty of the poem.
Extended Abstract
Regarding the essence of poetry-particularly from a philosophical perspective-extensive discussions have taken place since ancient times, from Plato (in The Republic) and Aristotle (Poetics) to modern thinkers like Heidegger (Being and Time). In Iran, too, intellectuals spanning from early figures such as Avicenna (in the introduction to the ninth art of the logic section of The Book of Healing) and Shams Qays Roziy (Al-Mu’jam fi Ma’ayir Ash’ar al-’Ajam) to contemporary scholars have sought to define the nature of poetry. Among the philosophers of the modern era who addressed the question ”What is poetry?” from a philosophical standpoint was Mahmoud Hooman (1908–1980). A chemical engineer, writer, and professor at the Universities of Tehran, Tarbiat Moallem, and Tabriz, Hooman earned his doctorate in philosophy from the Sorbonne University in France.
Alongside philosophical and historical books (such as History of Philosophy, Philosophical Lectures, Ancient History of Iran, The Mongol Invasion of Iran, etc.) that Hooman authored, he has two important books in the field of literature in which he presents valuable discussions regarding the nature and characteristics of poetry. The first book is titled Hafez, in which Hooman-particularly in its first section (“What Does Hafez Say?”)-poses and elaborates on topics such as: What is poetry?, Who is a poet?, What is the reason for the impact of poetry?, and so on. The other book is What is Poetry?, which is essentially a dialogue concerning “the essence of poetry” between Hooman and one of his students, Ismail Khoei. In this book, published several years after the previous work (Hafez), some of Hooman’s views on poetry have changed.
The present study, written in a descriptive-analytical manner and utilizing library resources, seeks to examine and analyze Hooman’s views-as one of the prominent contemporary thinkers and philosophers-regarding the nature and essence of poetry.
In a general classification, Hooman’s views on ”what is poetry”-can be divided into two sections-or, more accurately, into two distinct intellectual periods. In the first intellectual period, Hooman’s perception of the nature of poetry is organized through a combination of literary and philosophical viewpoints rooted in Persian literary tradition and the Western philosophical tradition. Inspired by and under the influence of Shams Qays, Kant, and Schopenhauer (or Schopenhoer, as he himself put it), he seeks to answer the age-old question ”what is poetry?”-though he conditions this definition with two requirements: ”grace” and ”brevity”. Hooman derives meter, rhyme, and symmetry from Shams Qays; the quality of being imaginative (in a conceptually expanded sense) from Kant and Schopenhauer; and he himself adds the two conditions of grace and brevity. In his view, the distinctiveness of poetry depends on the presence of all these features in speech. The absence of any of these features causes the poetic quality to fade, giving rise to other literary forms-namely, versified speech and artificial speech.
In the second intellectual period, Hooman-revising his views on the nature and essence of poetry with a broader perspective on contemporary poetry-removes features such as rhyme and symmetry from the essential components of poetry. In this new approach, he argues that knowledge of poetic rules and devices (and consequently possessing rhythm, specifically metrical rhythm or bahr), “having rhyme,” and “having equal parts” are no longer necessary conditions or inherent features of poetry. In his revised understanding, rhythm now signifies musicality [آهنگ], standing in contrast to the Greek concept of taktos-meaning “according to a fixed and specific rule and system”-which largely corresponds to “meter” in its traditional sense. Through this redefinition, Hooman ultimately concludes that poetry is melodic, short, graceful, and imaginative speech. During this second intellectual period, Hooman demonstrates a stronger inclination toward Husserlian phenomenology. Rather than emphasizing the language-centered aspects of poetry (as the Formalists do), he prioritizes its intellectual and meaning-centered dimensions, considering them fundamental to poetic expression.
Undoubtedly, within the body of research on poetry, Hooman’s reflections on the nature and constituent elements of poetry stand-if not unparalleled-as exceptionally rare when compared to the views of contemporary Iranian writers and scholars. Occupying a distinct historical position, he attempts to utilize history as a generative source for data concerning poetic definition, subsequently engaging in philosophical inquiry both in defining poetry and explicating its general principles.
While it is true that during his first intellectual period he was profoundly influenced-primarily by Kant and secondarily by Schopenhauer-his incorporation of features such as conciseness and grace as fundamental pillars of poetry enables him to transcend the formalistic constraints of Kant’s approach. Instead, he emphasizes how poetry is expressed and its underlying meaning. Consequently, symbolic texts permitting multiple interpretations are accorded greater value than panegyrics and odes.
In his second intellectual period, Hooman’s evaluation of beauty and definition of poetry undergo a significant shift. He abandons Kant’s subjective perspective, adopting instead a Husserlian phenomenological approach that acknowledges the interdependence of subjective and objective dimensions in the poet-audience relationship, as well as in judgments of beauty and poetic definition. This represents a departure from his earlier definition, aiming to establish a more expansive framework capable of assessing both classical and contemporary Persian poetry.
Within the historical context of poetic definition in our tradition, Hooman emerges as one of the few thinkers to construct a philosophical-intellectual system capable of artistically illuminating poetry’s multifaceted and often concealed dimensions-a system that remains relevant for contemporary poetry criticism and research. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Hooman’s poetic theory was inevitably shaped by his historical context. The definition of poetry has since broadened, with corresponding shifts in evaluative criteria and foundational principles. For instance, his meaning-centric perspective may not fully align with certain poetic movements, such as Barahani’s language-oriented poetry or various postmodern poetic trends.
Extended Abstract
Regarding the essence of poetry-particularly from a philosophical perspective-extensive discussions have taken place since ancient times, from Plato (in The Republic) and Aristotle (Poetics) to modern thinkers like Heidegger (Being and Time). In Iran, too, intellectuals spanning from early figures such as Avicenna (in the introduction to the ninth art of the logic section of The Book of Healing) and Shams Qays Roziy (Al-Mu’jam fi Ma’ayir Ash’ar al-’Ajam) to contemporary scholars have sought to define the nature of poetry. Among the philosophers of the modern era who addressed the question ”What is poetry?” from a philosophical standpoint was Mahmoud Hooman (1908–1980). A chemical engineer, writer, and professor at the Universities of Tehran, Tarbiat Moallem, and Tabriz, Hooman earned his doctorate in philosophy from the Sorbonne University in France.
Alongside philosophical and historical books (such as History of Philosophy, Philosophical Lectures, Ancient History of Iran, The Mongol Invasion of Iran, etc.) that Hooman authored, he has two important books in the field of literature in which he presents valuable discussions regarding the nature and characteristics of poetry. The first book is titled Hafez, in which Hooman-particularly in its first section (“What Does Hafez Say?”)-poses and elaborates on topics such as: What is poetry?, Who is a poet?, What is the reason for the impact of poetry?, and so on. The other book is What is Poetry?, which is essentially a dialogue concerning “the essence of poetry” between Hooman and one of his students, Ismail Khoei. In this book, published several years after the previous work (Hafez), some of Hooman’s views on poetry have changed.
The present study, written in a descriptive-analytical manner and utilizing library resources, seeks to examine and analyze Hooman’s views-as one of the prominent contemporary thinkers and philosophers-regarding the nature and essence of poetry.
In a general classification, Hooman’s views on ”what is poetry”-can be divided into two sections-or, more accurately, into two distinct intellectual periods. In the first intellectual period, Hooman’s perception of the nature of poetry is organized through a combination of literary and philosophical viewpoints rooted in Persian literary tradition and the Western philosophical tradition. Inspired by and under the influence of Shams Qays, Kant, and Schopenhauer (or Schopenhoer, as he himself put it), he seeks to answer the age-old question ”what is poetry?”-though he conditions this definition with two requirements: ”grace” and ”brevity”. Hooman derives meter, rhyme, and symmetry from Shams Qays; the quality of being imaginative (in a conceptually expanded sense) from Kant and Schopenhauer; and he himself adds the two conditions of grace and brevity. In his view, the distinctiveness of poetry depends on the presence of all these features in speech. The absence of any of these features causes the poetic quality to fade, giving rise to other literary forms-namely, versified speech and artificial speech.
In the second intellectual period, Hooman-revising his views on the nature and essence of poetry with a broader perspective on contemporary poetry-removes features such as rhyme and symmetry from the essential components of poetry. In this new approach, he argues that knowledge of poetic rules and devices (and consequently possessing rhythm, specifically metrical rhythm or bahr), “having rhyme,” and “having equal parts” are no longer necessary conditions or inherent features of poetry. In his revised understanding, rhythm now signifies musicality [آهنگ], standing in contrast to the Greek concept of taktos-meaning “according to a fixed and specific rule and system”-which largely corresponds to “meter” in its traditional sense. Through this redefinition, Hooman ultimately concludes that poetry is melodic, short, graceful, and imaginative speech. During this second intellectual period, Hooman demonstrates a stronger inclination toward Husserlian phenomenology. Rather than emphasizing the language-centered aspects of poetry (as the Formalists do), he prioritizes its intellectual and meaning-centered dimensions, considering them fundamental to poetic expression.
Undoubtedly, within the body of research on poetry, Hooman’s reflections on the nature and constituent elements of poetry stand-if not unparalleled-as exceptionally rare when compared to the views of contemporary Iranian writers and scholars. Occupying a distinct historical position, he attempts to utilize history as a generative source for data concerning poetic definition, subsequently engaging in philosophical inquiry both in defining poetry and explicating its general principles.
While it is true that during his first intellectual period he was profoundly influenced-primarily by Kant and secondarily by Schopenhauer-his incorporation of features such as conciseness and grace as fundamental pillars of poetry enables him to transcend the formalistic constraints of Kant’s approach. Instead, he emphasizes how poetry is expressed and its underlying meaning. Consequently, symbolic texts permitting multiple interpretations are accorded greater value than panegyrics and odes.
In his second intellectual period, Hooman’s evaluation of beauty and definition of poetry undergo a significant shift. He abandons Kant’s subjective perspective, adopting instead a Husserlian phenomenological approach that acknowledges the interdependence of subjective and objective dimensions in the poet-audience relationship, as well as in judgments of beauty and poetic definition. This represents a departure from his earlier definition, aiming to establish a more expansive framework capable of assessing both classical and contemporary Persian poetry.
Within the historical context of poetic definition in our tradition, Hooman emerges as one of the few thinkers to construct a philosophical-intellectual system capable of artistically illuminating poetry’s multifaceted and often concealed dimensions-a system that remains relevant for contemporary poetry criticism and research. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Hooman’s poetic theory was inevitably shaped by his historical context. The definition of poetry has since broadened, with corresponding shifts in evaluative criteria and foundational principles. For instance, his meaning-centric perspective may not fully align with certain poetic movements, such as Barahani’s language-oriented poetry or various postmodern poetic trends.
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