---

Mahmood Fotoohi Roudmajani Associate. Professor Of Persian Language and Literature Ferdowsi University The literary text is actually multiple meaning and flexible for interpretation and this feature is created by figurative language and tropes. This article attempts to investigate how the tropes create ambiguity and suspension of meaning in the text; how they damage the ordinary language and deconstruct it again. For this purpose the article classifies the tropes on the base of their functions in making a gap between literary world and ordinary language. It discusses the tropes function separately in preparing depth meaning for the text. Finally it concludes that the eternality of text and its flexibility for interpretation somewhat come in to being from tropes and figurative language. Figurative language is essentially deconstructive, because it initially makes different meanings by altering the ordinary usage of language elements, and then denies the possibility of its purposed meaning. The literary text in each reading therefore damages its own structure and deconstructs itself by way of differentiation and suspension of the meaning and this way achieves its ability to make dialogues with different kinds of generation and to be flexible for different reading in history.

---

The closed texts are among the texts being definitive in meaning and lucid in language. In other words they are monophonic and so, easy to understand. On the contrary, the open texts are polyphonic suggesting a possibility of different interpretations. Meanwhile, their language is implicit and ambiguous.
The hypothesis of the present article is that in the 8th century the open texts were developed widely in the Persian literature and for the very reason the poetry of the time is so brilliant tending to a kind of perfection in its lyrical form (Ghazal). The elements and factors involved in creating the open texts such as polysemicity, plurality, conciseness, making use of the original and everlasting subject matters, as well as taking advantage of the capacities of Persian language are discussed to be the origin of ambiguity, holistic point of view and the creating a possibility for these literary figures involved in polysemy of the text.
 

---

This paper examines incongruity as one of the linguistic mechanisms of texts bearing humor. The main question is that what works these texts seems humorous. Humor has been studied from three different, but related, approaches: psychological, literarily and linguistic. The paper takes as two main factors generating humor. First, the problem, the question and the literature review are mentioned. Then it refers to inconguity from structural and functional levels with regard to some humorous texts in Zakani's Resale-e- Delgosha. On the structural level, it refers to words play (homonymy, homophony, homography, paronymy) and the kind of punning andits in Persian rhetoric. On the functional level, it refers to ambiguity/amphilboly and their functions. The results showed that incongruity in the form punning as well as ambiguity/amphilboly paves the way to make texts seem humorous.

---

According to the usual definitions of ambiguity and amphiboly in rhetorics, the origin of amphiboly and ambiguity lies in polysemic words and position and intention of the speaker are the distinctive factors in the respect. Questioning this distinction, co-text is introduced as the criterion of differentiating amphiboly from ambiguity and as a result of such discussion a definition is formed which is the base of the arguments of this paper. The concept of multiple signification is considered equal to the application of polysemic words and the stability of semantic ambiguity resulting from multiple signification, is considered as the required condition of considering a case as amphiboly. In search of the possibility of amphiboly in theater de-contextualization of situational contexts, possibility of negation of various signifieds in any of semiotic systems in theater and impossibility of formation of various signifieds in the mind are considered to be the limiting factors.

---

The phrase “And those who argue concerning Allah after that answer has been made to Him" in verse 16 of Surah ASH-SHURA is one of the expressions that there is disagreement on its interpretation and translation. According to this phrase, the argument of deniers stands refuted after the acceptance of the call of the person mentioned by the genitive attached pronoun "hū "(ــه)of third person masculine. The disagreement over determining the reference of the deniers, the subject of response and the antecedent of the pronoun "hū "(ــه) has caused differences in interpretation and consequently translations of the verse. Some translations, without being influenced by interpretive judgments, also render the ambiguity of the verse. What evidence, however, can be used to interpret and translate this phrase correctly? Using a descriptive-analytic method, the present research, while introducing Persian and English interpretations and translations of the abovementioned verse and taking into account the meaning of the context and other related verses, aims to obtain the correct interpretation and translation of the verse. This research is necessary to make clear the meaning of one of the verses of the Holy Qur'an, and, moreover, it is of importance to show a wide range of ignorance about the evidences in interpreting and translating this verse. The result of the study suggests that the references of the disputers are polytheists or People of the Book or both; The reason for mentioning the passive verb "istujība" is to generalize the subject, which, according to the evidences, can be referred to Muslims, nature, and scholars of the Book, and the antecedent of the pronoun "hū "(ــه)is Allah.
 

---

The purpose of this research, which is conducted in a descriptive analytical and statistical manner, is to examine the criterion of cohesion and one of its components, the Normal Ordering Strategies in the poem entitled  “Manzoome be Shahriar", and its effect on the extent of poem textuality. The principle of Grice's cooperation consists of four maxims entitled quantity, quality, manner and relevance. However, the producer may violate these rules to create implicatures. According to Beaugrande & Dressler,   Principles of Grice's cooperation in text linguistics determinine the various aspects of cohesion and the level of informativity and textuality. The present study seeks to determine Which Grice’s maxim is the case of violation in the poem “Manzoome be Shahriar".What are the functions of this type of violation and how much does it affect the textuality of Nima poetry? . The result is that the violation of the Manner Maxim in the poem “Manzoome be Shahriar" is more obvious than the other three maxims and the poem has violated all three conditions. In the above-mentioned poetry, Nima violates the "shift from the first condition,  "rearrangement the constituents" in the phrases and the sentences, " parenthesis”" and " apposition", the second condition is "excerpts" which goes with it and the third condition is away from the ambiguity that is denied by the use of grammatical ambiguity. Each case was analyzed according to the manner maxim violation frequency, and its contextual and textual factors. Rearrangement of the constituents has been due to Nima's nativism, the emphasis on the part of the word and other purpose-oriented goals. A rejection of "excerpts" is due to the novelty of the poem and its need for detailed explanations". Group and structural Ambiguity" have been due to the tendency of Nima to obscure the poetry. Thus, the functions of the violation of the rule of reasoning are the creation of a new poetic language, attracting the attention of the audience to a specific section of the sentence and stylistic and political considerations. At the end, the impact of the violation was measured on the informativity, intentionality and textuality. Nima has changed the rules of language in order to achieve newer language features, but by doing so, it reduces the cohesion and consequently, the informativity and intentionality of poetry. Since the use of ambiguous sentences, prolonging sentences and numerous center embedding, get the mind occupied by margins and reduces the " informativity ,the " intentionality " and "acceptability" of the word and, consequently, "textuality". Thus, in the present study, the principles of cohesion indicate the use or deviation of the Grice’s semantic rules by referring to Beaugrande and Dressler cognitive-textual approach in order to make their theory practical in better understanding of intentionality. While Beaugrande and Dressler have practically used problem-solving methods, global patterns and interactive planning to achieve Intentionality and textuality.
 

---

Mousavi Garmaroodi's translation of Sajjadiyeh scripture is one of the most accurate translations of this prayer book into Persian. And because of the large number of relative clauses in the Arabic text, the critique of the translation of this word has been the subject of the present speech. Using the descriptive-analytical method and after extracting and arranging the equivalents of this type of Relative “Ma” from the script in Garmaroodi translation, the authors have focused on the first category in two categories without "مِن " and with "مِن". Because of relative clauses without what has a vague meaning, the translator must use the context or descriptions of the text to find the right equivalent, and this requires the translator's artistry, linguistics, experience, and extensive knowledge of the language and Literature is Persian and Arabic. It follows from this research that Garmaroodi has taken two methods for relative clause without what: either to keep the rhyme and brevity in the original text, he has kept it vague and has given him equivalents such as "which [آنچه]", or has turned to equalizing and bringing clear words from the Persian language. In order to find a suitable equal, he has used the context of the words and phrases back and forth of relative clause and apparently some of the descriptions on the Sajjadieh scripture. In any case, this combined method is a testament to the translator's meticulousness, research, and fidelity, and his aesthetic taste, and has placed his translation into a literary and beautiful prayer in Persian.
 

---

Ambiguity is one of the most important issues in lexical semantics and linguistics, and it has been studied from different approaches so far. It has a very long tradition of research in the history of linguistic studies. However, this paper will open a new perspective in studying semantic lexical ambiguity based on analysis of some cases in Farsi language, and as a result a new cognitive- semantic hypothesis will be introduced and discussed. Studying ambiguity with a cognitive approach may have some theoretical advantages which are not limited to Farsi language, and it could be generalized to all languages.Lexical ambiguity could be found when a word or lexeme presents more than one meaning at the same time by which a language user cannot easily detect the actual meaning. There are also syntactic and pragmatic ambiguities, but this research is about the semantic lexical ambiguity. Some cases of lexical ambiguity are homonymy words that are pronounced, and spelled similar but they are different words with different meanings.In this paper, a new hypothesis will be introduced which deals with the semantic lexical ambiguity with a cognitive approach. This hypothesis will be called dual readings hypothesis of semantic lexical ambiguity.
 
1. Introduction
Some cases of lexical ambiguity are homonymy words that are pronounced, and spelled similar but they are different words with different meanings. Polysemy also could lead to ambiguity when the context is not sufficient. However, another aspect of semantic lexical ambiguity could be seen in a word or lexeme when the word has both literal and figurative meanings, or explicit and implicit meanings, and the selection of the actual and final meaning is not easily possible for the recipient. Again, the context will remove ambiguity. Semantic lexical ambiguity is a result of double or multiple readings in a sentence or an utterance because of being some ambiguous word(s) in that linguistic unit. Homonymy words are by themselves ambiguous which will not be discussed in this paper. Ambiguity could not be considered as contextual sensitivity in which a change in the context may result in ambiguity. Context is the matter in contextual sensitivity. Semantic lexical ambiguity is typically relevant to co-text not context. Context could raise another type of ambiguity. Vagueness is different from lexical ambiguity in that way it refers to the general concept of a word not its specific feature(s).Ambiguity could be found between lexical meaning of a word and its figurative meaning. In Farsi for instance, the word Bimar has two different meaning of physically, or mentally, or morally ill. If someone refers this word to a person he could intend the lexical meaning which is physically or mentally ill, or its figurative meaning which is morally ill, and even a dangerous person. Moreover, if a word has polysemy meanings with explicit and implicit meanings it may be resulted in ambiguity. The main question of the present research is to find out if there would be an explanation with a cognitive approach for reaching out the actual meaning of a word which has semantic lexical ambiguity, and if this explanation could possibly lead to a hypothesis.
 
2. Methodology
All data presented in this paper are from spoken or written Farsi with no diachronic study. Some research has been done about this area in Farsi which has been mentioned in the paper. Farsi language is very rich in lexicon, and many cases of words with semantic lexical ambiguity could be found in Farsi. Most of the researches in Farsi have been done in the framework of the lexical semantics. The main issue which is discussed in this paper is that in many cases, the lexical ambiguity could be found out in words with both primary and secondary meanings, and implicit and explicit meanings. while it might seem that recognition of lexical meaning from figurative meaning should be easy but there are many cases in Farsi which might have semantic lexical ambiguity because the recipient cannot  come to a single reading of meaning of a word in a sentence or in a phrase, and more co-text, and also  in some cases context is needed to remove ambiguity. That happens because speakers minds have access to all primary and figurative meanings of a word at the same time especially when he/she is a native speaker of that language. The selected data reveal the semantic lexical ambiguity including both primary and secondary meanings in certain co-texts at the same time.The hypothesis is proved to work out in analyzing this type of ambiguity in Farsi.
 
 
3. Results
In this paper, a new hypothesis will be introduced which deals with the semantic lexical ambiguity with a cognitive approach. Some cases with semantic lexical ambiguity in Farsi will be discussed regarding this hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, when a Farsi speaker hears or reads a word or sentence which has lexical ambiguity, his/her mind based on speakers cognitive and linguistic competence processes the prototype meaning in the first phase. In this level, the lexical and primary meanings are retrieved and recognized. If there exists sufficient co-text then this primary meaning will be recognized, maintained and  will be understood, and if co-text is not enough for understanding the real meaning of the ambiguous word, simultaneously the second phase or secondary schema would be activated. Then, a semantic cognitive reading will be done in both implicit and explicit meaning levels of a concept and both levels will be activated in the speaker mind to recognize the real meaning. This reading could be reverse from figurative to lexical meaning based on the individual and past experiences of speakers which it would be then a marked reading. Mostly, the reading of meanings of a word begins with its prototype meaning.
 
4. Conclusion
The advantage of introduction of dual readings hypothesis of semantic lexical ambiguity is that it provides access to both lexical, primary and explicit meanings, and on the other hand, the secondary, figurative, and implicit  meanings. This hypothesis is about ambiguity of word which has primary and secondary meaning or it has somehow metaphorical extension or figurative meaning. Dual readings is a result of ambiguity and it will change to single reading for a linguistic unit when further co-text will be provided. In the literature of cognitive linguistic from beginning up to now, the concept of schema plays an important role. It is as the primary meaning of a word in another word. It is the main source of a metaphorical extension of a meaning of a word which results in a figurative and implicit meaning in that word. Schema is as a prototype concept from which various related concepts may emerge. The hypothesis discussed in this paper verifies that the primary and secondary meanings are inseparable because the dual readings have access to both which in turn causes semantic lexical ambiguity. Semantic and cognitive of Farsi speakers and most probably other speakers of other languages benefit from such dual access to different aspects of meaning of a word. This hypothesis considers the fact that no secondary or figurative or implicit meanings of a word has an independent status without its relation to the lexical and prototype meaning of that word. This paper is to explain the cause of semantic lexical ambiguity and its effects with a new cognitive hypothesis.

---

Ambiguity is one of the characteristics of some prominent contemporary poems and it is achieved by inducing original and preconceived concepts. One of the functions of such ambiguity is to create a sense of suspense. Suspension is a form of waiting in which the narrator puts the audience in a conscious and purposeful state of doubt and ignorance of the result of the narration, but with the help of linguistic elements, provides the possibility of thinking, predicting and discovering the missing link in poetic propositions. Creating a sense of suspense for the audience for understanding the meaning and purpose of the narrator creates a passion for reading. The reader's curiosity, along with the presuppositions, preconceptions, and possibilities that occur during the suspension, reproduces the meaning.
In this article, after examining linguistic and editorial factors of suspension, such as unfamiliar words, multilingualism, the existence of new terms, the use of new and native words, archaism, specialized terms, deletion, pronoun displacement, editorial aberrations, etc. we will analyze how do contemporary poets use these factors to create suspension with functions such as highlighting, defamiliarization, modernity, semantic development, polysemy, brevity, conveying the themes of indigenous culture, linguistic development and richness, so that they can engage the audience in the narrative.