---

 
 

 
Akbar Shamiyan Sarukalaei, PH.D.
Maryam Rezaeie avval
 
Abstract:
‘Lion’ is one of symbols of creation that has often mentioned in Shahnameh of Firdausi with varying topics and themes. It is evident that topics related to lion do not come from Shahnameh alone hence; its complete inquiry is not possible without reviewing other epical compositions followed Shahnameh.
In order to understand all topics and indications related to lion, it is necessary to study Shahnamed and 10 other epical compositions (such as Gashesp Nameh, Borzunameh, Bahman Nameh, Jahangir Nameh, Sam Nameh, Shehryar Nameh, Faramarz Nameh, Kak Kuhzad, Kush Nameh and Girshasp Nameh). After reviewing them, this paper has extracted, classified and made an analysis of the most important mythological-epical and ceremonial themes of this animal. These themes include kepi lion, soldier lion, lion leather and fighting tool, totem lion, portrait lion, and rules of lion worshipping, guardian of tomb and treasure, magic lion, astrological explications of lion, child and lion.
 
 

---

One of the most important sectors of each culture is folklore, which consists of different dimensions. The present study, focused on the culture and literature of the Baloch people, aims to recognize in what dimensions the Baloch women have been embodied in the Baloch epics; secondly, what position they have in the society and their family? Therefore, the main objective of this study is to identify and interpret the mechanism that in Baloch epics provides for a specific situation and status in relation to the Baloch women. To this aim, the qualitative and documentary methods of analysis were employed; in order to better interpret the obtained data, some feminist theories such as radical feminism, social feminism, and liberal feminism were used critically to find out whether the issues that are extracted from the data could be discussed through these frameworks. The results show that the images obtained imply some dimensions such as: adversative of peace and lasting relations between the powerful chiefs; power and wealth; intelligence; bravery, and militancy; a shelter against danger; and the adversative of the family relations by doing wrong judgments. In general, it was found that women who are mentioned in the Baloch epics have an equal value and status compared with men.

---

Horse is one of the most important themes in epic literature that has always been with the hero from the oldest era and even is sometimes unified with the heroes, and during the time it has taken many functions. In this essay, analyzing verse and prose epics and folklore based on the content analysis method, it became clear that sometimes the horse has a direct bond with water and fertility. In some texts, the horse is considered the symbol of wind, as it is evidently mentioned in Eskandarnameh. On the other hand, horse is sometimes a symbol of death, as the black horse of Aphosh, Shabrang Behzad, and the black horse of Esfandiar are linked to death. Sometimes the horse is unified with demon and fairy, as it is mentioned in the Hamzanameh, Firooz Shahnameh and Darabnameh Tarsosi. The horse of Tahmooreth in Shahnameh is also considered as the devil. Horse in some texts has such an important position for the hero that the selection of the horse is also one of the important stages of hero’s improvement, and sometimes even a horse and the horseman will unify as the hero cannot accomplish his mission without the horse, as Rakhsh and Sheborg Behzad in Shahnameh, and Ashghar, the horse of Boran-Dakht in Hamzanameh and Darabnameh Tarsosi are cases in point.

---

A significant part of Persian poetry is epic, and its domain has extended to the realm of folkloric literature. Local Jangname are poems with epical features that have been specifically written to imitate Shahnameh. These poems are in the form of masnavi, motaghareb and sometimes hazaj, describing exaggerated narratives, tales and heroic stories of persons or historical individuals from a geographical area. They are preserved for a long time in the area and could be used to resolve local and tribal conflicts. Depending on their subject matter, Jangname sometimes narrates the war between tribal leaders and the feudalists (khavanin) of the region, and at times narrates the war of a group with the central government, or the battle of a group of regional people with foreign forces. The element of war and the celebration or degradation of the local and regional characters and events are the basics of these poems. The works focused in this study are Jangname of Raeesi Delavari, Jangname of Hayat Daboud and Nightshift, and Jangname of on the light of Liravi which are studied stylistically and typologically. These poems influenced by the linguistic and literary style of the Shahnameh and other epic texts, as well as their tone and dialogue, have substantial differences with the epic genre; there is no indication of aspects such as myth, fiction, heroism, national spirit, and defamiliarization in these poems. They suggest no national spirit, because their heroes often seek to achieve their personal goals and objectives. It is concluded that these poems should be called ‘quasi-epic’.

---

Nafsato-lmasdur, written by ShahabAldin Mohammad KharandaziZeidariNasavi (died in 647 A.H.), is one of the scare works that have been transformed to a creative and pictorial text especially because of its literary characteristics and fictional style. This article tries to demonstrate the dramatic capacities and pictorial elements of this text by examining some of the dramatic elements and indicators, and moreover, it points to the text'sfictional and narrative quality, dramatic characters, suspension and finally its diversities of challenges, to shows that this text exceeds from a mere historical reportand passes over descriptive approaches and finds considerable dramatic capacities.
Thetheooretical base of this research consists of a combination of theories of fictional literature and drama (cinema). The articlehas been processed on the basis ofdescriptive- analytic method and usinglibrary resources.

---

Abstract:
The Shahanshahnameh is the most famous historical epic of the Qajar period, which was written by Fath Ali Khan Saba Kashani in an imitation of Shahnameh. The final part of this poem is about the Iran-Russia war and the heroic efforts of Abbas Mirza. The report of war and the heroic description are the main themes of this epic, and the myths are crystallized in various ways. Myth, on the other hand, is inextricably linked to popular belief. The present study examines the following mythological and popular themes in the Shahanshahnameh: prediction through sleep, magic, Haft Khan, Royantani, divinity, Ferdowsi, Deceptive Cover, Izad Soroush. The main purpose of the study is to explain the function of myth and popular beliefs in Shahanshahnameh as the historical systems. Hence, it was revealed that the themes used in Shahanshahnameh were influenced by Shahnameh or created to mythologize history. Considering the reflection of these themes in Shahnameh, Saba's method of using them and, in fact, the quality of these themes in Shahanshahnameh were also examined to clarify whether Saba had resorted to repetition and mere imitation or had actually intervened in them. The findings showed that Saba has used these foundations to mythologize history because of its predominant pragmatic approach. He derives from Shahnameh, which is sometimes rooted in popular culture; but he also has developed some elements and reduced some others. This research has been done in a descriptive-analytical method and  was based on library studies.
Keywords: Popular believes; Shahanshahnameh; myth; mythical foundations; dream; historical epic.
Research background
The subject of the present study has no background. The text of the Shahanshahnameh has not been completely edited and published, and the only excerpt, which is dedicated to the narrative of the Iran-Russia war, has been printed in India. Almost all researchers have access to the same publication, and their analysis about the Shahanshahnameh is based on this version.
Research has been done on the Shahanshahnameh, as well as a report on the Iran-Russia War, which, of course, did not address any of the mythical foundations. Only Shams Langroudi (1375, p. 129) has pointed to Saba's futile attempt to mythologize. Of course, research has been done on the themes of myths and popular culture in epic works, the most important of which is the study done by Azizifar (2015), examining the mythical themes in Darabnameh of Tarsus. In her doctoral dissertation, Khosravi (2016) also examines the mythical themes in the national epic poems after the Shahanshahnameh. Jabbar Naser (1397) has also examined the public and mythological beliefs in a narrative of the story of Rostam and Esfandiar.
Research has also examined the independent content of a mythical or popular theme. In his dissertation, Mirza Niknam (2001) investigated the prophecy in the Shahanshahnameh. Ghaedzadeh (2008) analyzed the prediction of Garshasbnameh in his dissertation. Gholampour and Poshtdar (2015) did a comparative study on the predictive functions of the great epics of the world (Shahnameh, Iliad, and Odyssey). In addition, in a book chapter, Sarami (2004) examines the dreams in the Shahnameh.
Shahnameh is a historical poem; but the battle with Russia provided a good opportunity for Saba Kashani to strengthen his epic-heroic background. The most important factor in this regard is the application of the mythological themes. This is why Saba Kashani includes kings, heroes, and the mythical creatures such as Soroush and Ahriman as well as the dragon in Shahnameh and mentions amazing events such as magic, dream, prophecy, etc. which are all rooted in myth.
The impact of Shahnameh and the attempt to depict the mythical image of the Iranian warriors have given the Shahanshahnameh, like other poems after Ferdowsi, an epic-mythical taste; however, this differs with Shahnameh.
In the history of epic literature, post-Ferdowsi's heroic poems are often based on written sources. The mythological themes can be found in their narratives, but because sometimes the source of the prose or possibly the payments and possessions of the composers of these works address the habituation more, it could be stated from the poetic point of view that the multiplicity and intensity of exaggerations, and the mythological elements in making heroic stories might make the narrations rather dull. A good example of this is Garshaspasnameh Asadi Tusi (Aidenloo, 2009, p. 52).
Aims, questions, assumptions
Myths are considered one of the basic elements of an epic, but their representation in the artificial epics requires further investigation. This is much imperative in a work such as Shahnameh, because it is a historical system, and what it narrates happened shortly before it was composed. However, several mythical themes have been used, the most notable of which are: sleep and prophecy, magic, weekly routine, deceptive coverage, and mythical creatures such as Soroush, and others.
Notwithstanding, this study aims to answer the following question: Is there a mythological foundation in the Shahanshahnameh?
Discussion
Fath Ali Khan Saba was a key poet in the Qajar court, and as he tried to praise his admirers in the poems, she intended to depict the mythical image of the Iranian warriors, especially Abbas Mirza, in Shahanshahnameh. On the other hand, Saba is strongly influenced by Ferdowsi and some themes of Shahhanshahnameh are taken from Shahnameh. As a result, the themes and mythical foundations of the Shahanshahnameh are introduced, and the present study examines these themes accordingly.
Conclusion
The foundations of myth and popular culture are linked in two ways: first, myth is one of the origins of popular culture and belief. Another is that both are sometimes unreasonable and even exaggerated. The reflection of these themes in Shahanshahnameh is justified from several perspectives: first, the epic context of the work, which is dedicated to the narrative of the Iran-Russia war. Fighting and confronting strangers is the main theme of the epic. Epic, on the other hand, is the most important manifestation of myth. Accordingly, the mythical foundations have found their way to the final part of the Shahnameh, which narrates the Iran-Russia war. Weekly captivating and engaging cover are the most important themes of the war-related myths.
Another issue is Saba's praiseworthy approach and efforts to exaggerate. This approach has led the poet to draw a mythical image of his own heroes. This work of Saba can be labelled as the mythology of history, which is crystallized in the form of dream, magic, and prophecy through dreams. Importantly, its prophecy and magic are also linked to the exaggeration and magnanimity associated with popular culture, which is reflected in Saba's work as well.
The final point is the impact of Shahnameh. Almost all epic poems after the Ferdowsi era are influenced by Shahnameh, and Shahanshahnameh is not an exception. All the mythical themes of Shahnameh are used in Shahanshahnameh; however, the processing and quality of all of these cannot be repeated and imitated. For example, Saba has used dream and prophecy as a starting point for his poem in the narrative of the Iran-Russia war. Soroush and Far were used with some semantic changes in a way that is more in line with Avesta's narrations than that of the Shahnameh. In contrast, what he has put forth about Haftkhan, Royantani, Magic, Letters, and Deceptive Cover is an incomplete and superficial imitation of Shahnameh.
Saba has used mythological foundations to mythologize history because of his praiseworthy approach; but to do so, he has imitated Shahnameh. However, this has been done a bit differently. At the same time, some mythological foundations have found their way into the popular culture as well.
References

•  Aidenloo, S. (1969). From myth to epic. Tehran: Sokhan
•  Azizifar, A. (2015). Study of mythical foundations in Tarabousi Darab. Textbook of Persian Literature, 7(4), 101-118.
•  Khosravi, S. (2016). Examining the themes and themes of myths in poetic epics after Shahnameh. PhD Thesis in Persian Language and Literature. Mazandaran University.

 Langroudi, Sh. (1996). School is back (in Farsi). Tehran: Markaz Publishing.

•  Mirza Niknam, H. (2001). Foreword in the Shahnameh of Hakim Ferdowsi. Master's thesis. Persian language and literature. Bahonar University of Kerman.
•  Saba Kashani, F. (1815). Shahnameh manuscript. Tehran, Majlis Library. Copy No. 587.

---

Taboo, as a belief in the existence of a transcendental and sanctifying force in a number of objects, plants, animals, and humans, is a prominent conceptual concept in the field of literary and anthropological studies. Each taboo, with its two characteristics of "sanctity" and “abstinence ", reminds its believers, a number of collective do's and dont's. Taboos, with their various functions, both in the past and in modern times, have a prominent place in collective relations. Since epic works are mythological manifestations and contain visible and hidden traces of the first eras of human life, by examining the taboo in these works, we can better understand the beliefs, do's and dont's and the type of thought that governs primitive society.The present article, which has been written with an analytical-comparative approach and from a taboo point of view, aims to acquaint the reader with the identical and dissimilar ideas of three peoples: Sumerians, Indians and Iranians, in three historical periods. Research shows that taboo beliefs and laws, with similar or dissimilar functions, play a prominent role in the three epic works, Gilgamesh, Ramayana and Garshasbnameh, and to the actions-reactions of epic-mythical characters. They give a special direction and this indicates the homogeneity of the type of functioning of the human mind, in different prehistoric-historical periods, in different geographical areas.

---

Ayyari, which dates back to the pre-Islamic Iran, was considered a socio-political phenomenon the main origin of which was the urban society. This class had such a position among the masses that most of the heroes of the folk tales were Ayyars. The influence of work and behaviors of Ayyars were not limited to such stories, but we also occasionally see traces and signs of it in the Persian heroic poems. With the spread of narration in Iran, the influence of Ayyari literature intensified in epic and heroic stories, and we see the peak of such literature in the figures named Rostam Yekdast / Kolehdast. This emerging figure, created and paid for by the creative and popular minds of the narrators, is a hero who stands up to Rostam and the Iranians, and challenges the heroic face of the Iranian people.  By examining the history and literature of Ayyari in Iran and the Islamic world, this study tries to portray the elements of Ayyari in the actions and behavior of Rostam Yekdast / Kolehdast. In addition, by analyzing the dual nature of Ayyari in the social and political history, it examines the dual personality of Rostam Yekdast / Kolehdast.

---

The story of "Rostam's death" in Shāh-nāma and Ghorar-assiar Tha'ālabi is different from all other sources. In these sources, there are four narrations of Rostam being killed by Bahman: natural death, the death of both opponents at the end of the war with Esfandiār, and being killed by “Ŝoghād/ Ŝaghād”. The source criticism of the story of Rostam and Esfandiār shows that it did not exist in Khodāy-nāma. The difference between the narrator of the story (Azād-sarv) and the narrators of Abu Mansouri's Shāhnāma and the anonymity of Ŝoghād in the sources has obscured the origin of the story. This article, considering the continuity of ancient contents in the folklore sources analyzes the role of Bahman in the murder of Rostam in narrative scrolls and epics. It also investigates an episode in Khāvarān-nāma of Khusfi (15 AD), which depicts Rostam being thrown in the camouflaged wells of Bahman. Finally, this research has proved that the killer of Rostam, in the oldest sources, was nobody other than Bahman, and in order to reduce the humiliation of being killed by a Kiani king, his guilt has been projected on the betrayal of a half-brother.

---

The anecdotes of Haft-Paykar, penned by the renowned Iranian poet, Nezami, maintain a structural discipline in relation to plot and contents. Although their narrations are linear in form, the other parts of these anecdotes maintain a unique structure in legendary symbolism. The background and presentation of solutions to different issues in these anecdotes, in majority of cases, is a reflection of the epical form. The terms of presentation of each section of these anecdotes are compatible with the symbolic contents and the spirit of each section.
In this study, efforts were made to make use of ancient role models and the Theory of Myths of Northrop Frye, in a bid to present an epical version of the poetic anecdote on ‘murder of dragon by Bahram and discovery of treasure by him’. At the end, it was cleared that the three structural sections of this anecdote show the background, and resolution of problems, which with the usage of symbolism and poetic atmosphere, reflect the repeated pattern of summer, winter, and spring myths. With due attention to these patterns: romance or irony and comedy are the literary form of each section. This approach to statement of anecdotes is observed in several Farsi traditional literary texts.

---

Objectives, questions, and hypotheses
The aim of this study is to study and analyze the image of Boyer-Ahmad's ethnic heroes based on Boyer-Ahmad's epic hymns. The importance of such researches is that through them, one can understand many traditions, beliefs, values ​​and the do's and don'ts of the owners of these poems. Epics as well as epic poems are very important and valuable in various aspects such as literature, preservation of national identity, transmission of values ​​and patriotic themes to other generations, and addressing them in the field of literary research is also essential. It is based on this approach that this issue has been investigated in this research.
 Result and discussion
One of the themes and manifestations of epic poems is the praise of national heroes who are accepted by all people by doing extraordinary deeds and capable warrior. In Shahnameh, Rostam is an example of an Iranian national hero and has always been respected. According to this tradition, the people of Boyer-Ahmad also praise the heroes in folk epic poems, who have led and guided them in various events, including wars. The heroes of these people were mostly capable warriors who showed their bravery in battles.
Among Boyer Ahmad ethnic heroes, we can mention Ki Lohrasb Batoli, Mir Gholam, Bibi Khan Qazi, Mullah Gholam Hossein Siahpour, Abdullah Khan Zarghampour and Naser Khan Taheri (Akbari, 1991). The most famous one is Ki Lohrasb and the most famous female warrior is Bibi Khan Qazi (Bibi Maryam plays the same role in Bakhtiari tribe). These heroes in folk poems and Boyer-Ahmad mourning odes, by unknown poets, have also been introduced and described (Shahbazi, 2019; Siahpour, 2005) and have a special place among the people of Boyer-Ahmad. Boyer-Ahmad's women usually choose the names of these ethnic heroes for their children, in order to preserve the memory and bravery of these heroes and transfer them to other generations (codes 9, 5, 3). A point that Bahman Beigi (1989) has also emphasized.
Before the battle, all Boyer-Ahmad's ethnic heroes boasted about breaking the spirit of the other side and put a lot of emphasis on their race. All of them fight against the Pahlavi regime (Reza Shah) and do not accept his policies towards tribes (Hosseini, 2002). Usually in folk epic poems and especially the mourning of Boyer-Ahmad's odes, Boyer-Ahmad's heroes are compared to lions. The reason for these similes is the transfer of the predatory spirit and the victory of this animal to the warriors. On the other hand, the main cause of such similes is the existence of mountain environments that make them hardworking, tolerant and strong people. Their most important weapons are mace, bow, mace with six prongs and shotguns.
Conclusion
After studying the subject of Boyer-Ahmad's ethnic heroes in their folk epic poems, many of the epic manifestations of the past can be seen in praising ethnic heroes, their weapons, including bows, maces and mace with six prongs, provocation of warriors and exaggerate in their description and the battles. One of the most important ethnic heroes of Boyer-Ahmad is Ki Lohrasb, the description of whom many folk epic poems have written included Mullah Gholam Hossein Siahpour, Abdullah Khan Zarghampour, Mir Gholam Shah Ghasemi, Vali Khan, Ali Khan and his wife Bibi Khan Ghazi and Nasser Khan Taheri are other ethnic heroes of Boyer Ahmad who all participated in various battles, they have played a significant role against Reza Shah's policies against the Boyer-Ahmad tribes. They have both fought and led the people. Most of these heroes, in order to provoke the people and their legitimacy and acceptance, boast before and during the battle and mention to their race, tribe and lineage. For this reason, Lohrasb, Ali Khan and Vali Khan have the title of Ki, a title that is specific to the Iranian Kiani kings. Their most important weapons are maces, bows and mace with six prongs, which show that they were the first weapons of their ancient to fight, and their background can be seen in Avesta and Shahnameh. The use of the shouting war song as well as the Shahnameh reading ceremony was the most important factor in inciting the warriors to war, and in addition to field data, this has been confirmed based on library reports; as we see in the time of Reza Shah and the Boyer Ahmad tribes.
References
A) Library
Akbari, H. (2002). Rejal Boyer-Ahmad. Fatimid
Bahman Beigi, M. (1989). Bukhara, my tribe. Agah.
Hosseini, S. (2002). Poetry, music and literature Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad. Fatimid.
Shahbazi, A. (2019). Boye Ahmad's epic verses or mourning odes. Bimonthly of Popular Culture and Literature, 7(1), 149-125.
Siahpour, K. (2005). Unequal battle. Historical Studies, 8, 171-207.
B) Field resources (interviewees)
Janipour, Keshvad. 80 years old. Rancher, Jalil Garden Village, Boyer Ahmad, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad. Code 3.
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad. Code 5.
Saberi, Nikrad 86 years old. Teacher, Pehun village, Rostam, Fars. Code7.
Shakibaei, Mehrdad 63 years old.Farmer, Biara village,Dena. 

---

Introduction
Research Background
About the history of heroic wrestling, there are valuable books such as: History of ancient sports of Iran by Beyzaei - nicknamed Parto-; History and culture of Zourkhane by Ensafpour; Iran's history of wrestling by Abbasi; and Heroic ritual and Zourkhaneh custom by Aghayri, all of which provide valuable information about wrestling terms and techniques. In addition to these, several articles have been published about the wrestling, the most important of which are: "The history of wrestling in Iran" by Parviz, which discusses the oldest archaeological document about wrestling in Iran; "Wrestling and the archetype of the hero" by Khosravi et al., which, from the perspective of the theory of the collective unconscious, deals with the ritual of wrestling as the manifestation of the archetype of the hero's battle with the shadows (the battle of the protagonist with the antagonist); "Zoroastrian Sedre and Kosti and its reflection in Kormanji Wrestling and Ferdowsi's Shahnameh" by Bidaki, which refers to the influence of  wearing Sedre and Kosti in Zoroastrianism on the clothes and belts worn by wrestlers in the Kormanji Wrestling, as well as the reflection of this tradition in the Shahnameh.
So far as the ritual of wrestling and its laws are concerned, no research has been done on the scrolls, and this research is one of the first attempts.
Goals, questions, and assumptions
Although archaeological documents and ancient Persian historical and literary books provide valuable information about the wrestling in different periods of Iran's history, unfortunately, except for a few writings such as Soltani's Fotovvatnameh (by Waez Kashefi Sabzevari) (Kashefi Sabzevari, 1971, 312-306) and a book the manuscript of which belongs to the 9th century of the Hijri (Ra ten treatises on shooting and archery and warfare, 2018, 41-37), none of them, in particular, have dealt with the rituals, terms, laws, and techniques of wrestling. Accordingly, the only texts that provide valuable information in this regard, and they refer to the ritual of wrestling among wrestlers, are the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems; therefore, the purpose of this research is to provide a clear picture of wrestling and to show the rituals, terms, laws, and techniques of wrestling, what is neglected in many ancient texts.
This article tries to answer these questions: What are the differences between ancient wrestling and new wrestling? What terms have been forgotten in new wrestling? What techniques can be added to the treasure of new wrestling?
Main discussion
In the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems, we are dealing with two types of wrestling: one, a wrestling for match, and the other, for battle. In the wrestling for match, two wrestlers, in the city square or in front of the soldiers, prove their strength, fight with each other. The one who knocks the other down is the winner. In the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems, we have few examples of this type, the most important of which are: Rostam's wrestling with Afrasiab in Turan's capital square. In the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems, most of the wrestling are wrestling for battle, which sometimes changed the fate of a war and determined the winner of the battle.
In the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems, we have rules of wrestling, which are considered errors today, but in the past, their use was free. In these wrestling, wrestlers either used combat uniforms or wore special clothes called Tonoke. In these wrestling, we encounter techniques that have been forgotten today and we only see their names in some scrolls or some Persian dictionary.
Conclusion
Although the sport of wrestling in Iran is several thousand years old, apart from the books and articles that have been published in the new era, and some books and short poems that are related to several centuries ago, written documents are not available about the ritual, the techniques and terms of wrestling. The narrative scrolls and late heroic poems are among the sources that can give us valuable information about the rules and terms of wrestling. These sources have discussed five laws about wrestling clearly and comprehensively, and some rare references are mentioned in this field. In addition, In the narrative scrolls and late heroic poems, we can see valuable information about the place and time of the wrestling, the clothes of the wrestlers, the types of rare techniques, and also some terms of the old wrestlers.
References
Afashri, M., & Maroji, F. (2018). Ten treatises on shooting, archery and warfare (in Farsi). Cheshmeh.
Kashefi Sabzevari. H (1971). Fotovvat-nama Soltani (in Farsi) (edited by M. J. Mahjoub). Farhang Iran Foundation. 

---

 
 
 

Farhad Tahmasebi, PH.D.
Zohreh Saremi
 
Abstract
 
This article aims to analyze the process of depiction based on thoughts and imagination, through maintenance of the identity of displays. A structure is taken into consideration under the headings of central picture, tools of depiction, tone of depiction, function of depiction, and the imaginations regarding the text. Thereafter, different types of picture are introduced and identified based on shallow and in-depth views; lack of dynamism and dynamism, cinematic view, and open, large scale, restricted, closed and independent manifestations. This study has been based on research of manifestations of Shamlou’s poems, while eyeing different periods of poetry, and the criterion of shortness and pictorial nature of poems.
The research outcomes reveal a bond between the manifestations and fiber of poems in the works of Shamlou. Dynamic, cinematic, and in-depth manifestations are frequent in his poetry. The analysis of manifestations in the poems of Shamlou, show the rebellious and critical approach of Shamlou’s poems which are the result of his social and personal life.
 

---

The clothes used in ritual ceremonies show the continuation of an ancient mythological rite. The type and color of the clothes, decorations and objects used in rituals have certainly a symbolic root; though not everyone who is wearing these clothes or using these objects is necessarily aware of their symbolic meanings. This research, in an analytical and descriptive method, is dealing with the relation between clothing and ritual-mythological ceremonies. In every ritual ceremony, we are witnessing special clothes and tools related to that special ritual. Different nations and tribes have different mythological narratives, usually with a common root, regarding the process from primitive life moving towards the modern life. The subjects related to the industry, producing fabric and the method of putting on the clothes are normally ascribed to gods, while in epics they are attributed to the characters and heroes. The color of the ritual clothes is in harmony with the universal symbols and their roots could be found in the mythological beliefs.
 

---

The literature of popular culture, based on beliefs, thoughts, and desires, has featured many adaptations and revisions of mythical epic narratives. It has been used as a model to create new stories that afford insight into the general perception and perspectives on these tales. This study aims to undertake a comparative analysis of the characters, actions, and mythical epic motifs of the story “Kor-e Asb-e Siah” in Bakhtiari culture and the story of "Siavash" in Shahnameh using document analysis. The comparative investigation encompasses an examination of their social backgrounds, physical attributes, and actions of stepmom characters, horse characteristics, and seeking asylum in another land. The results demonstrated significant similarities between these two stories; the main protagonists are princes with indeterminate maternal lineage, possessing corporeal beauty and horses that share similar qualities such as color, intelligence, and the ability to jump high. Additionally, their stepmothers are seeking for a sexual desire, both ultimately taking refuge in another land, getting married, and building a city and palace for themselves. Nevertheless, there are divergences between these stories; the story of Siavash features more politically motivated character behavior, whereas “Kor-e Asb-e Siah” emphasizes on familial matters. Hence, it could be concluded that “Kor-e Asb-e Siah” in Bakhtiari culture is a creative retelling or adaptation of the story of Siavash.
 

---

 
. Ahmad Rezai. PH.D
 
Abstract
 
In this study, attention has been made to the denotation and connotation of dreams and the related functions and theories have been enumerated. The features of dreams in the epical and mystic-educational genres have been named and their possible differences and similarities have been researched. The result of this study shows in epical texts, dreams are more bonded with the text in regard to time, driving force, and elements. Hence, in these texts, dreams are more effective and involved in the process of narration, compared to the mystical literary genre, such that dream is an integral part of the related text. Additionally, the message or theme of the dream is more transparent in epical texts or is revealed upon the assistance of the dream reader, removing all existing ambiguities.
 
 

---

Afsoon Ghanbari
. GholamHussein GholamHusseinZadeh. PH.D
Abstract
On the status of chivalric literature, there are differences of opinion in classification of the Farsi literature genres. Some have considered this literary category as a sub-group of epic literature. Some others have referred to chivalric types as novels, while another group has categorized this genre under the heading of common literature. In this article, the assumed compatibility of epic and chivalric literature has been discussed and the relation between these two genres of literature has been studied, while the most important examples of these two groups of Farsi literary texts, namely the collection of poems of the celebrated and acclaimed Iranian poet Ferdowsi, referred to as Shah-Nameh, and the chivalric literary book named “Samak-e Ayyaar” have been selected. Thereafter, the intertextual relations between two books, based on the three foundation, productive, and interpretive oriented approaches have been scrutinized and the bonds between these two exemplary chivalric and epic literary books have been detailed and elaborated. Ultimately, it is concluded that given the meaningful relation between epic and chivalric texts, each of these two genres’ texts are categorized as sub-groups to a more general genre, stated as “heroic epic literature” genre.
 

---

This article aims to introduce one of the characteristics of the oral tradition in the Persian epic based on the achievements of the theory of oral expression. Therefore, it focused on battle tools and extracted their types and frequency. It selected Haft Lashkar scroll and the Shahnameh narration scroll as examples of oral epics, and Shahnameh and Shahryarnameh as examples of poetic epics, and in the process of this research, it also explored the prominence and fame of epic battle tools due to their attribution to kings and warriors, country/city, totemic animals, as well as exaggeration of weight and power. The poets of the epic writers/narrators have these special martial tools in the form and construction of "form statements" in the treasure of their minds and have naturally and unconsciously introduced them in the stage of composing the epic. The most important achievement of this research, in addition to the introduction of battle tools as "epic template statements", is that the difference in the frequency and This article aims to introduce one of the characteristics of the oral tradition in the Persian epic based on the achievements of the theory of oral expression. Therefore, it focused on battle tools and extracted their types and frequency. It selected Haft Lashkar scroll and the Shahnameh narration scroll as examples of oral epics, and Shahnameh and Shahryarnameh as examples of poetic epics, and in the process of this research, it also explored the prominence and fame of epic battle tools due to their attribution to kings and warriors, country/city, totemic animals, as well as exaggeration of weight and power. The poets of the epic writers/narrators have these special martial tools in the form and construction of "form statements" in the treasure of their minds and have naturally and unconsciously introduced them in the stage of composing the epic. The most important achievement of this research, in addition to the introduction of battle tools as "epic template statements", is that the difference in the frequency and variety of battle tools between the texts of epic verses and the scrolls of narrative, as well as the use of battle tools in texts before and at the same time as the Shahnameh, such as Yadgar Zariran, Rudaki's poems , Farrokhi Sistani, etc., shows that first of all, "epic battle tools style statements" are a legacy of the oral tradition of Persian epics, and the poets of epics/narrators, even Ferdowsi, have no role in inventing them. Moreover, the narrative scrolls were not only influenced by the poetic epic texts, but oral narratives also played a role in their formation.
 

---

Arab culture and history have always been the focus of Muslims everywhere after the arising of Islam, and Muslims have become familiar with Arab culture and history by learning Islamic sciences. One of the historical aspects of the Arabs has been the erosive tribal wars such as the war of "Basous" and "Dahes and Ghabra", which were mostly a reaction to their hard life and desert living. "Rand and Lashar" is also one of the popular epics of Balochistan, which has undeniable similarities to the Basous war during the Jahili period. This research, with a comparative historical approach and content analysis method, expresses the historical similarities of these two epics and wars. The hypothesis of the research is based on the principle that Rend and Lashar's saga is in some cases influenced by the Besous war between the two tribes of Bakr and Taghlib in the Jahili, and the similar climate and social structure and moral characteristics have paved the way for this influence. The result of the research, proving this hypothesis, shows that the Basous war and Rend and Lashar's saga were ignited by killing the camels of "Basous" and "Gohar" and these two women were the central characters in these wars. The other side of this impact is the causes of these wars, in which revenge and supporting the guest are the main motivations of both wars.
 

---

The attempt to ‘post-modernize’ Iranian writers sometimes goes so far that the critic, without adequate justification, considers outstanding Iranian works which are rooted in the culture and tradition of this land to originate in and serve the same function and purpose as their Western counterparts. In this research, the authors unravel these Eurocentric interpretations in the case of Bahram Beyzaie’s Death of Yazdgerd. Meanwhile, the goal is not to introduce Beyzaie as an exclusively Iranian playwright and overlook his cosmopolitan bent. More specifically, Beyzaie’s Death of Yazdgerd will be explored in terms of Bertolt Brecht’s epic theater. Thereby, Beyzaie’s twofold accomplishment in tailoring Brecht for the Iranian context and drawing on indigenous traditions of performative arts will be elaborated. Out of the vast body of Brecht’s method, this study focuses on his approach to history and his conviction in the contingency of the status quo and, hence, the possibility for change and reform even at the bleakest moments. The second line of this study concerns the parallel usage of certain techniques by Brecht and Beyzaie to achieve the so-called “distancing effect.” Given the multiple and occasionally incompatible readings put forth regarding Brecht's drama, the authors have adopted the holistic approach of Fredric Jameson to the subject matter.
 Introduction
In the concluding chapter of Namayesh dar Iran, Bahram Beyzaie acknowledges that in the cultural and material exchange that the East (including Iran) had with the West, both were impressed by the other side in different ways. Nevertheless, he adds, this contract was not always proportionate, so that a country like Iran lost heart and felt cowed by the greater industrial and military power of Europe (Beyzaie, 2015). According to Beyzaie, whereas the West adopted a critical attitude toward whatever was eastern and adapted them to its own spirit and outlook so much that it squeezed something western out of them, Iran was content to blindly mimic the West and be a simple receiver. This, Beyzaie contends, also occurred in the area of drama. Beyzaie rightly asserts that it was quite possible to harness performative techniques and traditional values of indigenous popular drama while channeling its thematic dimensions toward the enlightening realistic thought of the modern age so that a national drama which takes account of new developments and advancements could be produced.
In this paper, it is claimed that Beyzaie was the first to fulfill the abovementioned twofold task of preserving effective aboriginal dramatic conventions of Persian drama and assimilating the liberal/critical perspective of modern European drama. To this end, we will show how Beyzaie’s Death of Yazdgerd (2014) deploys native dramatic elements of Persian drama that correspond to some of the characteristics of Bertolt Brecht’s “epic theater.”
 
Method
To better understand Brecht's epic drama, we draw on Fredric Jameson's reinterpretation of the German playwright in Brecht and Method (1998). According to Jameson, Brecht plays the role of a historical catalyst and serves as an empowering model in the development of emergent non-Western dramas; besides, he facilitates realizing untapped potentialities of Eastern cultures and arts by people who have recently been liberated from European colonialism (p. 18). We believe Bahram Beyzaie’s Death of Yazdgerd is a perfect example of such unexplored possibilities.
Discussion
Beyzaie does not provide a definitive account of what actually happened to the Sassanid King and invites the audience to make their own inferences. This stress on uncertainty and the possibility of viewing a subject through multiple perspective enables Beyzaie to reinterpret the Iranian performing art such that it could meet the challenge of modernity, which he critically confronts “with an uncompromisingly secular gaze” (Dabashi 2001, p. 76).
In dealing with historical and mythical issues, Beyzaie—following Brecht—does not seek to merely relate how the last Sassanid King died; rather, one might hypothesize, he implies that the conventional xenophobic narrative—that a handful of backward and barbaric Arabs plundered Iran and ruled over its people—may not be necessarily true.
Beyzaie considers Brechtian alienation effect to have been the product of the East taken up by the West. He provides numerous techniques that traditional Persian drama has utilized to disabuse the audience of the notion that what they watch is reality, and thus it prevents them from identifying with the characters. This gesture induces a passive reaction in people and precludes any endeavor on their part to reform the society. This outlook, largely compatible with epic theater, underpins Death of Yazdgerd. One of the most characteristic techniques conductive to the realization of the alienation effect which has been exploited here and recommended by Brecht is the extensive use of masks. In Death of Yazdgerd masks and robes generally have been used effectively to illustrate that many deep-seated notions which have been taken for granted are indeed based on deceptive appearances and devoid of any substantial content. Transposition of the play into the past and using third-person point of view to narrate the events are two further suggestions made by Brecht for producing the alienation effect (1964, p. 138). In Beyzaie’s play, these techniques have been exploited throughout, for the entire play revolves around a historical event - i.e. the narrative of what happened to the late King after he entered the miller’s shack - which the characters as second players restage for the King’s men. In Death of Yazdgerd, theatricality is foregrounded, among others, through the stage directions that are explicitly mentioned, itself another technique proposed by Brecht (1964, p. 138).
Conclusion
Beyzaie’s Death of Yazdgerd is an cogent example of Pascale Casanova’s thesis that writers gain domestic and global recognition by, first, appropriating their national artistic tradition and, second, harnessing the international venues of the art in question (2004, pp. 40-41). In the case of the former, Beyzaie utilizes the indigenous genre of taqlid. As for the latter, we underscored the way Beyzaie appropriates Brecht’s epic theater in this play.
 
References
Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic. Trans. John Willett. New York: Hill and Wang.
Beyzāie, B. (2014). Marg-e Yazdgerd: Majles-e Shahkoshi. 11^th ed. Tehrān: Enteshārāt-e Rowshangarān va Motāle’at-e Zanān. [In Persian]
---. (2015). Namāyesh dar Iran. 10^th ed. Tehrān: Enteshārāt-e Rowshangarān va Motāle’at-e Zanān. [In Persian]
Casanova, P. (2004). The World Republic of Letters. Trans. M. B. Debevoise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dabashi, H. (2001). Close up; Iranian Cinema, Past, Present and Future. New York: Verso.
Jameson, F. (1998). Brecht and Method. London: Verso.