---

The concept of narration, with a background as long as the human’s history, has already provided a suitable area for critics’ analysis and assumptions about tales, stories and other types and forms of narration in the form of Narrative Science.
In this paper we are going to analyze and compare the application of narrative view and focus in two short stories of “To Whom I Say Hell?” by Simin Daneshvar and “Zane-Ziadi ” by Jalal Al Ahmad via investigating the structure of the language at the first place on the basis of linguistic features and narrative viewpoints.
Accordingly, the current study tries to answer the following questions:

How the applied language in the above mentioned works can be affective in forming the role of the narrator and finally, the focus?
Have these traits and features been leading us to the same type of narrator and focus features in order to clarify the typology of the story?
Have the narrative discourse and prevailing viewpoint and the resulting context in both stories led us to the same hidden author?

But in this respect, linguistic and narrative mechanisms of both stories alongside the different types of writers based on their gender and engagement pave the way to better compare both stories according to their viewpoint. To this end, and according to linguistic and narrative patterns, the following results were obtained in two levels of parts of speech and syntax of discourse. Contrary to “Zane Ziadi”, “To whom I say hello?” benefits from present tense verbs, the lack of negative modality at the level of parts of speech, first person protagonist viewpoint, internal focalization and discontinuous discourse procedure which make Daneshvar’s discourse more successful in internal focalization at the level of discourse syntax, while in “To whom I say hello?” , the use of past and perfect tense verbs , negative modality with high frequency , rhetorical questions and heavy sentences with logical chain of argument make the distance between both stories. Here, it is easily possible to hear the voice of Ale- Ahmad behind the voice of woman’s narrator which seems negative and external in comparison with writer’s internal focalization. Hence, the presence of two internal and external narrators, has led to the emergence of hidden author and dominant discourse in this story.

---

---

 
Number is a grammatical concept, whose singular/plural distinction has been mentioned in many Persian grammar books; but less attention has been paid to various semantic functions of plurality. So it is often interpreted as referring to more than one entity. The present article is an attempt to investigate mopho-semantic aspects of “hâ” as one of the most frequent plural-making morphemes, particularly with the aim of examining two questions hereunder:
What are the morpho-semantic functions of “hâ” plural-marker in Persian?
To what extend does Persian number system follow from the range of cross-linguistic varieties?
Assessment of data (collected from written texts, grammar books and author’s intuition) according to Acquaviva’s framework (2008) clarifies that Persian follows from typological semantic functions and plural-making with “hâ” represents different interpretations in relation to basic lexical meaning of nouns it attaches to. In sum, plurality in Persian conceptualizes one or more functions as follows:
- referring to more than one entity;
- representing imperfect aspect;
- expressing cohesion;
- representing blurred perceptual boundary;
- reflecting concrete reading of abstract and spatio-temporal nouns;
- affirming instantiation, quantitative and qualitative abundance of the referent;
- indicating distributive-dispersal interpretation of mass nouns, similarity; and
- highlighting emphasis on the referent.
It is worth mentioning that some aforementioned functions such as representing aspect, quantitative abundance, emphasizing and approximate temporal extension have not been introduced in the Acquaviva’s framework and they can just be found in Persian. Nevertheless, it is also possible to explain these by extending the conceptual modules of the framework.
 

---

    This paper aims at investigating and analyzing the coverage of Greenbergian universals in word order and inflectional categories within Razan, Tabriz and Istanbuli dialects of Turkish. The selected Iranian Turkish varieties are located in the western and northwestern regions of Iran and Istanbuli Turkish is placed in Turkey. To achieve the research goals, the data gathering has been performed via interview, voice recording and transcription. In continue, all the 45 Greenbergian universals have been examined on the selected data. In spite of their geographical distances, the research results demonstrate syntactic, morphological and typological similarities among the three varieties under consideration; although some differences are observed and notified therein, the most important one in the lexicon part. The data analysis illustrates the application of 18 universals within the data, among which around 40 percent are confirmed; although the percentage varies in syntactic, morphological and typological areas, which is demonstrated within the paper.

 

---

         In systemic functional typology, which studies the systems of languages rather than the whole languages, linguists strive towards empirical generalizations that in principle apply to all languages around the world. In line with the above-mentioned goal of systemic functional typology and having examined the ideational (logical and experiential), interpersonal, and textual systems of the ‘clause grammar’ of different and various languages, Matthiessen (2004) has achieved a series of typological generalizations/universals. In connection with his proposed typological generalizations, Matthiessen (2004) has argued that they can be applied in the description of any language and in the attempt to expand the typological explanations in the framework of systemic functional grammar as well. However, he has immediately stated that “It is not yet possible to propose a generalized map; but we have to move in that direction.”
         In line with Matthiessen’s claim mentioned above, the present paper has attempted to describe the THEME system of Azeri Turkish on the one hand and compare it with the THEME system of Persian language on the other hand. This research has been conducted in terms of the following three typological parameters concerning the THEME system: (1) The treatment of unmarked and marked THEME (related to the subsystem of THEME MARKEDNESS), (2) The relationship between THEME and MOOD (related to the subsystem of THEME SELECTION), and (3) The relationship between experiential (topical) THEME and interpersonal and textual THEME (related to the subsystems of THEME TYPE, INTERPERSONAL THEME, and TEXTUAL THEME).
         Studying typological behaviors of the Azeri Turkish THEME system in the framework of Matthiessen (2004)’s typological generalizations and comparing those behaviors with the typological behaviors of the Persian THEME system show that the two languages of Persian and Azeri Turkish (1) have an almost identical thematic structure, (2) treat both unmarked and marked Themes similarly, (3) have multiple types of Themes beside simple ones, (4) treat the elements of a multiple Theme similarly, and (5) have a MOOD-free THEME system. These findings show that both languages, which are genealogically different, have a similar THEME system and specifically the three subsystems of THEME MRKEDNESS, THEME SELECTION, and THEME TYPE. This result is consistent with ‘axial principle of congruence’. According to this principle, languages tend to be more congruent with one another in terms of paradigmatic axis/system than in terms of syntagmatic axis/structure.
         In the end, it is suggested that the typological behaviors of the THEME system of other languages spoken in Iran be identified and introduced in the aforementioned framework.
 

---

  This article examines love story as one of the widely popular and ancient genres of Persian literature. For this purpose, I have employed morphology—one of the tools of typology—to identify different genres of narrative literature. This article studies twenty-two examples of love poetry to identify functions, characters, and narrative patterns of the love stories and their typology. Persian love story, I argue, as a literary genre has a narrative with an opening scene, twenty-two functions, and five main characters, and the genre follows an almost similar narrative pattern. This genre, based on the two criteria of the presence/absence of “resolving-an-obstacle” function and the ending functions, has three sub-narrative patterns or three sub-genres: material love story, spiritual love story, and material-spiritual love story.

---

This article seeks to examine the functional types of local poetry and music of Sangesar which are registered as an intangible cultural heritage of Iran in December 2011. Sangesar, one of the cities of Semnan province, which is actually the residence of the Sangesar tribes during the winter, is currently known as Mahdishahr. The local music is a part of Sangesar folklore, which includes local songs as well as reed instrument (Lale), which has become popular in Sangesar due to its use by shepherds. In order to collect and study the songs, interviews and recording of the musical samples were done. This article deals with the typology of Sangesari songs and poems from a functional perspective with a descriptive-analytical method. The results show that the local music and songs of Sangesari include various types of servers, lyric poems, and work poems that are related to migration to summer and winter and protect the memory of local heroes and their heroism. The most frequent songs are lyric songs and ritual songs, especially Nowruz poems.

---

---

In systemic functional typology, which studies the systems of languages rather than the whole languages, linguists strive towards empirical generalizations that in principle apply to all languages around the world. In line with the above-mentioned goal of systemic functional typology and having examined the ideational (logical and experiential), interpersonal, and textual systems of the ‘clause grammar’ of different and various languages, Matthiessen (2004) has achieved a series of typological generalizations/universals. In connection with his proposed typological generalizations, Matthiessen (2004) has argued that they can be applied in the description of any language and in the attempt to expand the typological explanations in the framework of systemic functional grammar as well. However, he has immediately stated that “It is not yet possible to propose a generalized map; but we have to move in that direction.”
In line with Matthiessen’s claim mentioned above, the present paper has attempted to describe ʿmaterial clauses҆ in Persian within the system of PROCESS TYPE. This research has been conducted in terms of the following typological parameters concerning material clauses: (1) the number of participants involved in a material process clause (2) strategies for bringing in extra participants (3) the nature of Actor, (4) case marking, and (5) strategies for construing the transfer of possession and dispossession.
         Studying typological behaviors of Persian ʿmaterial clauses҆ in the framework of Matthiessen (2004)’s typological generalizations shows that in Persian (1) as in English, beside the two inherent participants of Actor and Goal, other participants, i.e. Recipient/Client, Initiator, Scope, and Attribute, are involved in the realization of the material process, (2) as in English but unlike languages such as German and Japanese, the inherent participant of Actor is widespread, (3) each of the above-mentioned extra participants is somehow added to a material clause. For instance, the Initiator is added to a material clause via causativization, (4) as in German, the case marking of material participants is fairly straightforward, and (5) as in English, the transfer of possession is construed differently from the dispossession. These results indicate that all Matthiessen (2004)’s generalizations concerning material clauses can be utilized in the description of Persian material clauses.
 In the end, it is suggested that the typological behaviors of the material clauses of other languages spoken in Iran be identified and introduced in the aforementioned framework.
 

---

Sustainable ecotourism is a nature oriented tourism that maintains a sound relationship with the natu-ral environment, and contributes to its conservation. Ecological understanding is a prerequisite of sus-tainable ecotourism. Nature conservation and ecotourism are interdependent. There should be a sym-biotic relationship between the two, in which, both derive sustainable benefits in a lengthy period of time. In order to decrease natural deterioration, the present ecotourism economic and financial assess-ment should be challenged. Sustainable ecotourism demands new managerial methods that can esti-mate both environmental inputs and outputs in every single ecotourism venture and meets the required criteria of both. Triple-bottom-line accounting approach provides a foundation for assessment of envi-ronmental, social, and financial costs and benefits of ecotourism ventures. Ecotourism companies can allocate some of their resources to the nature conservation and people education. This is how they can obtain a positive triple bottom line. Developing environmental management strategies, programs and procedures with measurable objectives, and allocating adequate funds for their effective implementa-tion is recommended in this article. Effective financial management system with capable accounting mechanisms would provide the ecotourism organizations with the necessary foundations for transition towards sustainability.

---

Currently, the major discussions in the field of Linguistics belong to Typology and Linguistic Universals. Typology is a linguistic study that analyzes the structural similarities among languages regardless of their history. This term was first applied to the categorical and comparative study of linguistic notions by a linguist named Gublentez. Typology is not merely a tool for categorizing and defining general patterns in languages. It is an approach for understanding the nature of language as well. In typological studies, attempts are made to group languages from different families in order to reach more precise studies and results. This article also consists of the same attempt. Persian is an Indo-European language, and Arabic is a Semitic one. Language Universals refer to the characteristics and features which are present in most languages worldwide. This notion is known due to the efforts of Greenberg. After analyzing 30 different languages, he proposed the notion of Language Universals. Typology and Language Universals show a strong relationship and complement each other due to the fact that typological categorization leads to the discovery of universal principles in the structure of languages. The relation between language universals and typology dates back to 1960s. From that point in history, the notion of typology is accompanied by Greenberg’s Language Universals.
Studying the order of structural elements has been one of the most important discussions in the world of Typology. That is firstly due the fact that languages have more differences in this matter and these differences are the foundation of typological studies. Secondly, according to Greenberg, between the order of fundamental parts and other structural features of language exist a typological correlation.The most important and common approach for posing a question in languages is through interrogative words. By using interrogative words various notions such as place, time, people, and causes are subject to inquiry. The existence of such words is universal, that is, it seems highly unlikely to find a language that does not carry interrogative words. In typology numerous factors are analyzed, among which is understanding the movements of interrogative words in languages. Dabirmoghadam (1393) has proposed 24 factors, and factor 22 relates to interrogative words. Topologists have identified two main types: first is that interrogative words replace the element of the notion which is put under question, and second, interrogative words are placed at the beginning of a question sentence. In this study, an attempt is made to study the movement of interrogative words in both Persian and Arabic in order to illustrate their position in the lingual typological system. In addition, the influencing factors on this movement are discussed. The method of this study is analytical-descriptive and selected pieces are from published and online materials (books, newspapers and magazines) in both languages and these pieces are from various areas ranging from social to religious, scientific, literal and so on. In the theoretical framework of the study, there are some details related to interrogative words in both languages and a table is drawn consisting of these words in Arabic and Persian respectively. Meanwhile the movement of interrogative words were defined that in this research it refers to the place of such words in sentences in comparison to the same declarative sentence. In the analysis, firstly some of the important views related to these words are represented; in Persian, views by Bateni (1392), Khanlari (1391), Vafai (1392), Gholamhossein Zade (1391) and Meshkataldini (1374), and in Arabic views by Sibooye (2004), Ebn al Saraj (1999), Hassan (1975), Jorjani (1982) and etc., afterwards, selected pieces which consist the basis of this research are analyzed.
According to the findings of this research, Persian and Arabic fall into different types of interrogative words movements. The tendency in Persian is to replace the element of question, while in Arabic interrogative words come at the beginning of a question sentence. Furthermore, these two languages are compatible to the language universals they represent. With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by reference to the sentence as a whole, if initial, such elements are found in prepositional languages, and, if final, in postpositional. Plus, if a language has dominant order “VSO” in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases first in interrogative word questions; if it has dominant order “SOV” in declarative sentences, there is never such an invariant rule. This conclusion is based on the analysis of cases indictive of the fact that the movement of interrogative words to the beginning of the sentence is a strong tendency in Arabic language. As a result, Arabic language corresponds to Language Universal number 12 since this universe acknowledges the movement of interrogative words to the beginning of a sentence in “VSO” structures. Additionally, since interrogative words in Arabic are among those which question the nature of a sentence, they come at the beginning of a sentence. Language universal number 9 also acknowledges Arabic language since it carries more prepositions.
Furthermore, it is recognized that interrogative words replace the element of question in a sentence. This fact shows the tendency of this language. Therefore, Persian language with the core structure of “SOV” is in harmony with the language universal of number 12. According to this universe, the movement of interrogative words does not tend to come at the beginning of a sentence in “SOV” structures.
 The above-mentioned findings are presented in a table. Another finding of this research is that structural, semantic and processing factors have an impact on the movement of interrogative words. For instance, in Persian the interrogative word of “why” usually comes at the beginning of a sentence since it put the nature of a sentence under question. However sometimes, a conflict occurs between the word “why” and other elements such as “interjection” on the first position of the sentence and the interrogative word gives the space to interjectory words and comes in second. To propose another example, interrogative words tend to occupy the first position in a sentence in Arabic, however sometimes it is observed that the element of question has occupied the first position, while the interrogative word is in the second position. In fact, this replacement is due to the significance of the element.
 
 

---

The Holy Defense, as one of the historical periods that ended with the victory of the Iranian nation, has lessons and teachings that should be studied by researchers and become a model and theory. Commanding style of commanders is one of the important aspects of that period that has been considered in the present study. Twenty commanders of the Holy Defense were studied in a library method, considering the diversity of command positions, reputation, and the availability of resources. The obtained documents were coded and analyzed with a qualitative approach and content analysis method, and after validation in two stages, four styles of jihadi command were identified in the commanders of that time: "Creative consequentialism (focusing on the goal based on intelligence)", "Authoritarian consequentialism (attention to the goal based on authority)", "Wise staffing (attention to forces based on intelligence)" And "strong support (focusing on force based on authority)."

---

Aims: This study investigates the amount of heating load, cooling load, daylight and ventilation in different types of construction in Tehran and based on the objective function, calculates the optimal building type by considering the general form and RC(relative compactness) and Introduces the basis of WWR(window to wall ratio), states of window to wall distribution and orientation.
Methods: At first, different types of building types in Tehran were extracted. The types were arranged in a modular method and were classified after calculating the RC. Then the types were modeled and simulated using software to calculate heating load, cooling load, daylight and ventilation in different modes. For each type, 60 analysis were performed and by writing the objective function, the types were compared and the optimal types was introduced.
Findings: The types with a RC=0.95, WWR=10% and West 270, had the lowest heating and cooling load. Although it has a minimum energy load, it doeschr('39')nt have maximum daylight and ventilation. For this purpose, after equalizing the unit and writing the target function, a building types with a RC=0.54, WWR=40% and Uniform 180 with the lowest energy consumption and the highest amount of daylight and ventilation was selected as the optimal form.
Conclusion: Although the building types with high RC has the least load of heating and cooling, but considering other variables, these types is not optimal in climatic performance. Therefore, the weight coefficient of variables in the objective function is very important for deciding on the energy consumption of building types.

---

This article aims to study the modal elements equal to bɑjæd in Persian, meaning ‘must, should, and have to’ in some West Iranian languages, including Balochi, Gerashi, Gilaki, Hawrami, Kahangi, Kurdish, Lori, Persian, Semnani, Tati and Vafsi. It also presents the semantic map of these expressions beside a categorization of these languages based on a modal element. The investigations have indicated that some of these languages (Balochi, Bamposht dialect and Hawrami, Hawraman Takht dialect) use adverbial modals to express these notions, while as least in one case (i.e. Kahangi), there are two distinctive auxiliaries which signify ‘must, have to, and should’. Moreover, classification of these languages, according to a semantic feature, ends in a continuum on which languages are laid next to each other, where some of them are closer to some languages and further from the others; this is against the traditional categorizations which are mostly based on morpho-syntactic features, in which a language is whether a member of a group or not. Moreover, all the targeted elements, (expect one of the modals in Kahangi, i.e. ɢɑde) besides deontic (necessity and possibility) and epistemic modality (possibility type), express participant-inherent need, participant-imposed necessity and situational necessity, as types of dynamic modality.
           
1. Introduction
In the languages of the world, words (mostly auxiliaries) meaning ‘must' are primarily used to convey deontic modality. Modality is usually defined as those semantic modifications that the speaker uses to talk about his thoughts and beliefs about a state of affairs or SoA (Nuyts 2005, Butler 2013). In Iranian languages bajad (and its equivalents) meaning ‘MUST’, is the main language element to indicate necessity and possibility.
This paper studies 11 Iranian languages choosing from Rezaei Baghbidi's classification (2009): Balochi (Bamposht), Gerashi, Gilaki (shaft), Hawrami (Hawraman takht), Lori (Balagariveh), Kahangi, Kurdish (Sorani), Persian, Semnani, Tati (Takistan), and Vafsi. It discovers the modal elements meaning ‘MUST' and specifies their modal domain. The article seeks to provide a semantic map, following Van der Auwera and Plungian (1998), using one modal notion, i.e. ‘MUST'. Ultimately, based on this semantic feature, it presents a language categorization to verify how this categorization varies with current classifications which have syntactic considerations.
 
2. Literature Review
Among many studies on modality, Akhlaghi (2007), Taleghani (2008), and Rezai (2009) study modality in Persian. Following Palmer (2001) they conclude that modal auxiliary bajæd expresses deontic, dynamic and epistemic modality.
In case of other Iranian languages, Moradi (2012) studies modality in Sorani Kurdish from a semantic and syntactic perspective and Naghzguye Kohan and Naghshbandi (2016) investigate modality in Pavehi dialect of Hawrami.
 
3. Methodology
This study applies a questionnaire including 200 situations and 82 sentences to collect the data. The questionnaire was conducted in the interviews and the informants were asked to use modal elements to complete the situations and translate the 82 sentences in their own languages. The data has been transcribed in IPA, checked with the speakers, glossed with Leipzig glossing rules, and analyzed.
 
4. Results
Our study shows that the expressions meaning 'MUST' in the languages of our concern, convey those domain of modality which following Nuyts (2005, 2006, and 2016) can be summarized as in Figure 1. This figure is the semantic map suggested by Van der Auwera and Plungian (1998). Their terminology has been converted to Nuyts:
 
Figure 1: Semantic map of ‘MUST’ in Modern West Iranian Languages


The article is also an effort to categorize these languages based on a semantic feature, namely modality. Applying the typological notions of continuum and number, we may not be able to present a clear-cut category, but we can provide a continuum in which some languages are closer to the others comparing with the rests. Figure 2 is the result of such a try:
 

 
5. Discussion
The first issue to discuss here is to discover the modal elements which are used to express those semantic notions meaning 'MUST'. Our investigation shows these elements are mainly auxiliaries; however, in two of languages of our concern, i.e. Hawrami and Balochi, these are the adverbs which indicate necessity and possibility. These elements are as follows: pejke (Balochi), bɑæd (Gerashi), va/vas(t)i (Gilaki), pʃo (Hawrami), ɢɑde and be-ɡu/be-ɡɑ (Kahangi), æʃe/æʃjɑɛ (Kurdish), boæd/mije/mijɑst (Lori), bɑjæd (Persian), mɛ-ɡi/mɛ-ɡijɑ (Semnani), mo-ɡo/mo-ɡosti (Tati), ær-ɡo/ær-ɡoɑ (Vafsi).
To illustrate the type of modality these elements express, we apply Nuyts' (2005, 2006, and 2016) classification in the category of modality. In this sense, these modal expressions are used to talk about a) absolute moral necessity and desirability (as subcategories of deontic), b) epistemic probability, c) participant-inherent, participant-imposed, and situational (as subcategories of dynamic modality). In Kahangi, two modal auxiliaries meaning 'MUST', these roles are divided between these elements, and they don’t get close to each other's realm.
 
 
6. Conclusion
Our study shows categorizing languages based on a semantic feature does not provide us with an absolute boarder. Rather, we can judge the languages in a continuum that shows how closer or further each language is to the other members. Hither, Hawrami and Balochi, applying modal adverbs, are closer to each other comparing to Kahangi with two auxiliaries for the same purpose.
 
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the informants who kindly and patiently participated in numerous interviews in the process of data collection. We appreciate their concern and love for their mother languages

---

 To consider significant variation of dialects of Gilaki Language and different approaches on the classification of clitics and different usage of this element in the Iranian dialects and languages, writer purposes to determine variation of clitics in Gilaki language, various features of clitics and their position in this language. There are two questions here: 1-how is typological verity of clitic and its feature in Gilaki language? 2- where is the position of clitic in the sentences of this language? it seems that there is same varity of clitic in three dialect divisions of Gilaki and clitic occupy second position into the sentences of this language. linguistic data of Gilaki has been investigated on the basis of a questionnaire of Max Plank written on typological investigations of clitics on which It has been analyzed in 5 separable parts including general features of the language, categories, specific features, place of clitics in the phrases and its movement. Collected data from three branches including west, east and Galeshi has been analyzed on basis of descriptive- analytical- comparative method. The results will express that there is sameness of clitics among three mentioned branches of Gilaki. Generally we can observe pronoun pre-clitics connected to objective symbol, Objective symbol post-clitics /ǝ/, emphasis clitics and post- clitics of the symbol of conjunction /O/ in Gilaki language.There aren’t Post-clitics of personal pronouns connected to nouns, verbs, adverb and adjectives in this language. It isn't possible to move clitics to the prior position. Indeed considering the investigations, Wackernagel’s law about second position is verifiable for Gilaki language.

1. Introduction
Gilaki is one of Iranian northwest languages and a member of Caspian seaboard languages. It has many differences with Persian and many similarities to Medes, Parthian and Avestan languages (Stilo, 2001). In this article, we will present a typological analysis on clitics in three geographical divisions of Gilaki language. We intend to utilize some of typological devices from Max Planck linguistics institute to determine the varieties of clitics, its feature and the position of this element in Gilaki language. Generally, distribution and operation of clitics as a significant concept of morpho-phonemic studies are investigated in this project and our main theoretical approach is linguistic typology.
There are two questions here:
1-how about typological variety of clitics and its features in Gilaki language?
 2- where is the position of clitics in the sentences of this language?
 
2. Literature
2.1. This is level 2
Zwicky (1977) has analyzed the clitics and Sportich (1992) has focused on the structure of clitics. Condoravdi and Kiparsky (2004) in their article entitled “ Clitics and Clause structure” have investigated the clitics variety in the middle and contemporary Greek language. They believe that some of clitics in some of dialects of this language find their roots in a projection of inflectional clause and they belong to a verbal head in other dialects. Anderson (2005) expresses that pronouns are so common to be as clitics and pronominal clitics have their specific features which some of them are relevant to being clitics and some of them are not.
Moreover, there are many Iranian researches on clitics. Shaghaghi (2006) has presented a definition of clitics and its features. Rasekh Mahand (2010) believes that all of pronominl clitics in the languages all around the world are located in two positions: 1- Wackernagel’s position. It means after the first words of sentences or constitutions. 2-  before or after the verbs of sentences or constitutions located before the verbs. Sarahi and Alinejad (2014) have investigated clitics in Persian language typologically. Alinejad and Mohammadi (2015) have analyzed clitics in Surani dialects of Kurdish language and its collaboration with prepositions. Mazinani, alizade and Sharifi (2017) have shown that evolution of clitics in Persian language presents a good explanation of inconsistence of this language with Dryer’s vigesimal standards and Greenberg’s No. 20 universal. SabzAlipour and Vaezi (2019) have discovered the function of clitics in agreement system instead of verbal pronoun and lack of doubling clitics in Dorvi dialect of Tati language.
 
3. Methodology
 Throughout the current research , linguistic data of Gilaki has been gathered via field research on native speakers of some villages and towns of Guilan province. Then the data has been investigated on the basis of a questionnaire of Max Plank written on typological investigations of clitics on which it has been analyzed in 5 separable parts including general features of the language, categories, specific features, place of clitics in the phrases and its movement. Collected data from three branches including west, east and Galeshi has been analyzed on basis of descriptive- analytical- comparative method.
 
4.Results
The results will express that there is sameness of clitics among three mentioned branches of Gilaki. Generally we can observe pronominal pre-clitics connected to objective symbol, Objective symbol post-clitics /ǝ/, emphasis clitics and post- clitics of the symbol of conjunction /O/ in Gilaki language. There aren’t Post-clitics of personal pronouns connected to nouns, verbs, adverb and adjectives in this language. It isn't possible to move clitics to the prior position. Indeed considering the investigations, Wackernagel’s law about second position is verifiable for Gilaki language.
 
Table of results          
 

Linguistic Features (+/-)	B pish      B pas	Galeshi
SOV  order	+               +	+
post position and GN	+               +	+
prodrop	+               +	+
objective clitics	+               +	+
pronominal clitics of verb	-	-
pronominal clitics of  adverb	-
pronominal clitics of adjective	-                -	-
pronominal clitics of noun	-	-
pronominal clitics of preposition	+               +	+
interrogative and negative clitics	-	-
emphasis clitics	+              +	+
conjunction clitics	+               +	+
genitive specifier clitics	+               +	+
NPs order	+               +	+
enclitics and postclitics	+               +	+
first position of clitics	-
second position of clitics	+                 +	+
stress of clitics	-	-
double clitics	-	-
junction of clitics	-	-
movement to the end of phrase	+                 +	+

 
 

---

Since ancient times, pain and suffering have been one of the prominent manifestations of human life. These two concepts have always had numerous meanings and instances in human life, sometimes destructive and sometimes constructive, and have always had a wide reflection in literature during different periods. By examining the works of writers and poets, one can achieve different and specific types of pain and suffering in these works. In the present study, the typology of pain and suffering in the works of two contemporary Iranian and Arab poets, namely "Nima Youshij" and "Nizar Qabbani", has been comparatively studied using an analytical-descriptive method. Studies show that common types of various areas of pain and suffering, such as the suffering caused by love, being a poet, the suffering of oppression and tyranny, and social pain, can be found in the works of both poets. The first two types of pain and suffering mentioned above are more personal and individual in nature, and the other two types are more concerned with general and human suffering. This important fact indicates that pain and suffering in the intellectual system of these two poets has multiple dimensions and is not one-dimensional. Nima Yushij and Nizar Qabbani’s concern and depiction of social issues have caused the poems of both poets to reflect a lot of pain and suffering. Of course, this pain and suffering does not originate from despair and malice, nor does it lead to nihilism; rather,it is often rooted in the hope of creating change

---

At first glance, “number” is considered as a very simple grammatical category. However, in fact, it is a complex matter in languages and it causes varieties in world languages. The present study aims at examining the plurality and number category in language varieties of some cities in Kerman province based on typological approach. The survey’s corpus is extracted from Iran Linguistic Atlas’s database (ILA) a project compiling in Research Center of Cultural Heritage and Tourism. The research results show that, the value of number category in the studied language varieties is just singular and plural. The singular nouns are encoded without marker and the plural nouns are marked. The plural markers attach to singular nouns in suffix form, therefore the strategy for plurality in the studied language varieties is morphology, which is the most common one in the world languages. The data analysis indicates that syntactic strategy is used for encoding the number category along with morphological one.

1. Introduction
At first glance, “number” is considered as a very simple grammatical category and it is simply considered for distinguishing between singularity and plurality. However, in fact, it is not a simple matter in languages and the analysis of number and plurality in languages may be a complex matter. The way number is expressed in languages are different. In this study, number category and the way for encoding it, is examined in the language varieties of some cities in Kerman province based on typological approach. Also, plural markers in the studied language varieties are introduced. For analyzing the data, Corbet (2004), Dryer (1998 & 2005) and Haspelmat (2005) are used as theoretical frameworks. The corpus of this study has been extracted from the Iran Language Atlas (ILA) database. ILA is a linguistic project of the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT). It aims at recording the usage of words, phrases and sentences of every regional spoken dialect of Iran’s rural areas based on a questionnaire consists of 105 words and phrases and 36 sentences. Recorded data of spoken language of 30 varieties of the said province included in ILA’s database.   
Research questions:
1. What is (are) the strategy(s) of encoding the "number" category in the studied language varieties?
2. Which forms of number (singular/plural) are marked and is the presence of marker on noun obligatory?
3. What kinds of number values do exist in the studied language varieties?
 
2. Literature Review
According to traditional grammar, there are singular and plural number in Persian. Singular in contrast with plural refers to one person or object in real world. There are two markers for plural nouns in Persian /-hɑ/ and /ɑn/ which are attached as a suffix to the end of the singular nouns (Anvari and Ahmadi Givi 2008:85). Singular nouns are zero-marked in Persian. Lazard (2010) and Mahutian (2008) mentioned that /-hɑ/ is used in both spoken and written styles and /-ɑn/ which is changed to /-un/ in spoken language. Windfuhr and Perry (2009) believes that /-ɑn/ is less frequent, denoting animates, paired parts of body, and a few other words. Paul (2019:585-586) states that   /-ɑn/ goes back to the Middle Persian and it was used for plural nouns in oblique case. In standard modern Persian, this plural suffix denotes the plural of animate nouns. He adds that in Modern Persian /-ɑn/ is almost replaced by /-hɑ/. But sometimes the usage of /-hɑ/ instead of /-ɑn/ causes difference in meaning of words. Shaghaghi (2007:55, 71) states that the plural markers in Persian are inflectional, because they do not produce a new word. However according to Ghomeshi (2003:56-57) they are derivational as they are variants based on different registers. Roshan and Ghadiri (2015) have mentioned that the suffix /-hɑ/ in Persian with time words refers to the meaning of repetition, along with plurality. Darzi and Ghadiri (2011) have studied the quantitative features of /-hɑ/ in Persian. They believe that this suffix with some time words shows quantitative features. Jam (2020) has examined the pronunciation of /-hɑ/ in Persian based on the theory of optimality. Different semantic functions of the suffix /-hɑ/ based on typological approach are studied by Bahrami (2018). According to Givon (2001) singularity is unmarked in the world languages but plurality is morphologically marked. He believes that in some languages plural forms are used just for animated nouns. Croft (2003) has mentioned that different languages show various behaviors in plurality. In some languages singular nouns are without marker but plural ones have markers on them. In some other languages both singular and plural nouns are with different markers. Also, there are a few languages in which none of the singular and plural nouns have markers on them. Some of the Iranian scholars like Rezai Baghbidi & Mahmoodi Bakhtiari (2005), Sharifi & Akhlaghi (2012), Karimi & Fallahi (2012) and Faalhi & Karimi (2015) have studied number category in some Iranian languages. 
3. Methodology
This research is descriptive-analytical and is a field study, based on an original survey on natural linguistic data of the studied languages. Through this research, the singular nouns and their plural forms have been extracted from database and then analyzed according to the research theoretical frameworks. The data are from ILA database of Kerman province. In this study all 30 language varieties which are available in ILA database of Kerman province, are examined based on theoretical frameworks. The research corpus consists of 328 plural nouns and noun phrases.
 
4. Results
The Research aims at studying the “number” category in language varieties of some cities of Kerman Province based on typological approach. The data are from ILA database. Results show that the number system values are singular and plural in the whole analyzed research data. The singular nouns are zero-marked, but the plural ones have markers which are obligatory. The plural markers are in suffix forms attached to the singular nouns. The strategies of number category in all studied language varieties are morphological and syntactic ones.
 
Table 1.
 Plural markers in Kerman province language varieties
 

	Language variety	Plural Marker				Example	Tranlation
		-ɑ	-hɑ	-ɑn/ -un	-lær/ -nær
1	Persian	+	+	+	-	deræXt-ɑ Xorus-hɑ-j-e  sijɑ Ɂɑn  zæn-ɑn deræXt-un	trees black cocks those women trees
2	Abgarmi	+	-	-	-	Xorus-ɑ   sijɑ	black cocks
3	Eshkur	+	-	-	-	doXtær -ɑ  Xub	good girls
4	Barfe	+	+	-	-	Xorus-ɑ   sijɑ Ɂu  zejfe-hɑ	black cocks thoes women
5	Baluchi	-	+	+	-	deræXt-hɑ Ɂɑn  ʤæn-ɑn	trees thoes women
6	Turkic	-	-	-	+	jɑXʧe Gez-lær jɑXʧe oɣlɑn-nær	good girls good boys
7	Heydarabadi	+	-	-	-	Ɂʊ  mærd-k-ɑ	those men
8	Dehaji	+	-	-	-	deræXt-ɑ	trees
9	Ruzbehabad	+	-	+	-	morq-ɑ-j-e  sijɑ pesær-ɑn-e  Xub	blach hens good boys
10	Zangiabadi	+	-	-	-	doXtær-u-w-ɑ   Xub	good girls
11	Sohrab	+	-	-	-	deræXt-ɑ	trees
12	Sharikabad	+	-	+	-	ɟilim-ɑ  pesær-ɑn-e   Xub	rugs good boys
13	Shambuie	+	+	+	-	ɟilim-ɑ  deræXt-hɑ morɟ-un-e  sijɑ	rugs trees black hens
14	Shamili	+	+	+	-	Xorus -ɑ-j-e sijɑ deræXt-hɑ   ɟilim-un Ɂon mærd-ɑn	black cocks trees carets those men
15	Aliabadi	+	-	+	-	deræXt-ɑ pesær-ɑn-e  Xub	trees good boys
16	Ghaleasgari	+	-	-	-	doXtær-ɑ  Xub	good girls
17	Keykhosravi	+	-	-	-	ɟilim-ɑ	rugs
18	Rudbari	-	+	+	-	deræXt-hɑ Xorus-un-e  sijɑ	trees black cocks
19	Lalezari	+	-	-	-	deræXt-ɑ	trees
20	Rashki	-	-	+	-	ʔɑ  zæn-un	those women
21	Faryab	+	-	+	-	morʁ-ɑ-j-e  sijɑ dot-un-e  Xub	black hens good girls
22	Kahnuji	-	-	+	-	doXtær-un-e  Xub	good girls
23	Maarazi	-	-	+	-	dot-un-e  Xub	good girls
24	Manujani	-	-	+	-	ʧok-un –e  xub	good boys
25	Mazare	+	-	-	-	deræXt-ɑ	trees
26	Mamuli	+	-	-	-	deræXt-ɑ	trees
27	Mehrabadi	+	-	-	-	morq-ɑ  sijɑ	black hens
28	Meymand	+	-	-	-	Ɂɑn  mært –ǝke-ɑ	those men
29	Medvari	+	-	-	-	Ɂɑn  zen-ǝk-ɑ	those women
30	Garmsiri	-	+	+	-	Ɂɑn  zən-un deræXt-ə-hɑ	thoes women trees

+ Used in this language varieties
- Not used in this language varieties
 
The figure 1 shows that among the plural markers used in Kerman province language varieties, the usage frequency of /-ɑ/ is the highest and /-lær/ or /-nær/ are the lowest ones. Sometimes the informants do not use the plural forms by mistakes under negative interview circumstances. The last column in figure 1 indicates its frequency.
 
Figure 1.
 The frequency of plural markers usage in the studied language varieties

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

---

Aims: The yard has played a much more prominent role than ever. After the changes in the structure of the community, the house and yard changed. The present study investigates these changes and the reasons for their occurrence during the contemporary period.

Methods: The data collection is a documentary.

Findings: The results of the study indicate that in the past, the yard has been an organized element to the home, an element of light and ventilation of the spaces, a connector with nature, and providing a convenient space for family comfort and celebration. But the yard’s role today is merely the space between the house and the passage, the car movement, and sometimes the small gardens to make optimal use of the remaining areas of the motorway.

Conclusion: Due to society's changing social and cultural structures, resurrecting the same way traditional courtyard for today's society is in vain. The same traditional courtyards in the new urban design where the houses are overlapped have been changed to roof gardens that need to be in sight. These changes can be attributed to the developments in the Qajar era. Given these developments, the relationships and assumptions of the world of tradition were not capable of living in the contemporary world. All in all, modern man’s environmental perceptions changed. As the most relevant space to man, the house has undergone significant changes, and the yard, one of its most important spaces, has not been immune to these changes.

---

This paper aims to investigate postposing in Modern spoken Persian. Persian is a verb-final language; however, some constituents frequently follow the verb and appear in the post - verbal domain. Among the factors motivating this phenomenon, one of them is grammatical weight. The universal tendency proposed by typologists is the “short-before-long principle”; locating the heavy constituents after the light ones in order to ease the process of production and comprehension. Some studies advocate the position of long constituents before short ones in verb-final languages like Japanese and Korean. Based on the Persian spoken corpus, this research analyzes the postposed constituents according to their grammatical weight. It is observed that the heavier constituents are postposed more easily compared with the light ones; supporting the universal trend of placing heavy constituents after the light ones.

1. Introduction
In most grammatical and linguistic studies, the order of the unmarked word order in Persian has been considered "subject-object-verb". But in Persian sentences, there are other sequences in which the above-mentioned order is not necessarily observed. One of these marked sequences is the presence of some constituents in the postposed position. This movement also called postposing, is a phenomenon that occurs mostly in the spoken form of Persian. The main hypothesis of this study is that the weight of structures affects postposing and heavier structures are more liked than lighter structures, and therefore the Persian language puts heavy structures in the postposed position; after light structures. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to examine natural data and the corpus of this research is spoken corpus of Persian.
Research Question(s)

1. Does grammatical weight affect postposing in Persian?
2. Which constituent comes first? Heavy before light or light before heavy?

2. Literature Review
Reviewing previous studies, we can say that there are three types of conclusions about the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents in Persian: the group that considers weight ineffective in word order (Frommer 1981; Ma’aref and Mehdizadeh, 1397). The second group has studied weight in preposed constituents and considers it effective. In their view, heavy structures take precedence over light constituents (Faghiri & Samvelian 2014, 2020). The third group has studied the postposed constituents and concluded that weight is effective in the postposing and heavier constituents are moved more easily and frequently and after the constituents (Alaei et al. 1396, 1397; Rasekh Mohanand et al., 1392, 2016).
None of the above studies that have utilized the natural spoken corpus have not specifically focused on postposing. The present study, considering the spoken corpus of Persian, investigates the effect of weight on the rearrangement of constituents.

3. Methodology
In the present study, in order to study natural data from Persian, the spoken corpus has been used. ELAN software version 5.7.0 was used to prepare spoken corpus. This software is a tool for producing natural language data and is a tool used in the project of a spoken corpus with the name HAMBAM.

4. Results
Here Finally, it can be said that the results of this study are a confirmation of the researches of Alaei et al. (1396, 1397) and Rasekh Mohannad (1396) who have emphasized the effect of weight and more probability of moving heavy constituents to the end of the sentence. Also, according to Hawkins (1994), the main reason for the postposing and tendency of Persian to choose a heavy constituent after a light constituent can be considered as facilitating sentence comprehension and processing. The placement of the verb as the semantic core of the sentence before the heavy constituents makes it possible to understand the meaning of the sentence faster and thus convey the message.

5. Discussion
 In summary, this study, considering the principle of "heavy constituents before light constituents " in four areas, confirms that in Persian, among the constituents that have become obsolete, and the constituents that are in the unstable position. The signs are located, four constituents follow this principle; In contrast to other constituents, with a slight difference, they show a tendency contrary to this principle.
6. Conclusion
We can examine the hypothesis of the present paper. In this study, the main hypothesis was that the proposed constituents are heavier than their corresponding pairs in the unmarked state. If this hypothesis is confirmed, at least it can be said that the Persian language puts heavier constituents in place after the verb, in other words, the principle of light structure is observed before the heavy structure.
Among the three types of views on the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents in Persian mentioned, it can be said that the view that considers the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents is acceptable. There is sufficient evidence for this tendency in the constituents of the subject, predicate, time, and indirect object, but the evidence related to direct object, place constituents, and manner constituents do not confirm this finding.
 

---