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Volume 13, Issue 61 (3-2026)
Abstract
The history of pottery in Mazandaran dates back to the 8th millennium BC, and the extent and spread of this art can be seen in different parts of this province. A jar is one of the most important clay products that is produced and reproduced mostly with the aim of meeting the essential needs of daily life. One of the ways to study the culture of societies is to study folk literature, especially the oral literature of that society, especially the study of proverbs. The present essay, which was written with a descriptive-analytical method and using library facilities, tries to investigate the function of "jug" (Kelā) in proverbs. Mazandarani and the type of encounter of the people of this province with that pottery is formed by an artistic-literary point of view. The results of this research show that the existence of proverbs made from clay jars, with different accents (from the east to the west of Mazandaran province), illustrate the presence and abundance of this artistic and practical product throughout the province. Also, the examination of Mazandarani proverbs, which are mostly brief and ambiguous, shows that the creators of proverbs are interested in mentioning the type and type of soil, as well as in the construction and finishing techniques (designs, pictures, colors). patterns and glazes do not have jars and instead, the emphasis and focus is on the coexistence of the jar with other elements in order to produce concepts.
Research background
Regarding the subject of this research, no independent study has been done so far, but Esmailzadeh and others (2021) have tried to "analyze the structure of proverbs made of "Sebu" clay in Saeb Tabrizi's ghazals" in an article, to show the extent and manner of Saeb's use of Cebu pottery in the literary form of the proverb.
Objectives, questions, and assumptions
Considering that the spread of pottery has included the geography of Mazandaran since the earliest times, it is necessary to analyze the type of encounter of the people of this province with pottery products from an artistic-literary point of view. Examining the terms related to pottery products in the proverbs of Mazandaran, apart from showing the artistry of the people of this region in the production of the said technology, their insight and aesthetic taste also emerges in the artistic use of pottery products in a rhetorical and literary context. This study tries to answer these questions while examining the functions of one of the earthenware products, i.e. "jug" and its types in Mazandarani proverbs. The following question, nonetheless, were raised:
1. Which of the types of jugs is the mostly used in face making and are there proverbs in the conceptual fields?
2. with what mechanism are most of the proverbs made from the jar and in which conceptual fields have they appeared?
3. In these parables, is there a reference to the type of soil and also to the technique of making and finishing the jars?
The main discussion
The proverbs of "jug" in Mazandarani language can be analyzed from two perspectives: 1. The use of jugs in the literary and anthropological fields, most samples of which focus on the coexistence of jugs with other elements, which were poured into its heart; 2. Reflecting the process and techniques of making and paying in proverbs. Based on the collected data, the types of jars that can be seen in Mazandarani proverbs are: "Kelā", "pilak", "pilkā", and "gƏmi", each of which is were investigated separately and according to the application scale.
Usually, in the specialized examination of pottery, attention is paid to features such as period, primary material, and manufacturing technique, patterns, etc. Clay is used to produce pottery in Mazandaran, and the most important tool for making jars is the pottery wheel (Kerimi et al., 2012, p. 94). In the reviewed examples, there is no mention of the material, the type of soil, or the technique of making and finishing the jars. In some proverbs, the spherical nature of clay jars is mentioned.
Conclusion
The most important jars in Mazandarani proverbs are: "Kelā", "pilak", "pilkā", and "gƏmi". In practical and conceptual fields, "Kelā" has the most diverse concepts, most of which are presented by showing the appearance of the jar. The conceptual field of "pilkā" emphasizes more on "the companionship of two people". The presence of elements of nature, especially elements such as water and the products of animal husbandry and agriculture, is one of the anthropological characteristics in proverbs. In the meantime, the most connection between the jar is with the word water, and after that, the products of animal husbandry, which are related to the jar. Then, there is the connection with rice and other grains. Among the other anthropological aspects of parables is the hitting of jars and their breaking, which is rooted in the beliefs and games of Mazandarani. From a literary point of view, all the features belonging to the coordinates of parables can be seen. Creators like these are not interested in mentioning the type and type of soil, as well as the technique of making and finishing the jars.
References
Ismailzadeh, Kh., Sadeghi-Nejad, R., & Mohammad Zadeh, M. (2021). Analyzing the structure of proverbs made from "Cebu" pottery. Quarterly Allegorical Research in Persian language and Literature, 13(47), 1-16.
Karimi, S., Qajrian Mahfrozi, A., & Hassan Nejad, P. (2012). Technology and documentation of Joibar pottery. Collection of articles of Tabarstan National Art Conference (past and present). With the efforts of Mustafa Rostami. Mazandaran: University of Mazandaran.
Research background
Regarding the subject of this research, no independent study has been done so far, but Esmailzadeh and others (2021) have tried to "analyze the structure of proverbs made of "Sebu" clay in Saeb Tabrizi's ghazals" in an article, to show the extent and manner of Saeb's use of Cebu pottery in the literary form of the proverb.
Objectives, questions, and assumptions
Considering that the spread of pottery has included the geography of Mazandaran since the earliest times, it is necessary to analyze the type of encounter of the people of this province with pottery products from an artistic-literary point of view. Examining the terms related to pottery products in the proverbs of Mazandaran, apart from showing the artistry of the people of this region in the production of the said technology, their insight and aesthetic taste also emerges in the artistic use of pottery products in a rhetorical and literary context. This study tries to answer these questions while examining the functions of one of the earthenware products, i.e. "jug" and its types in Mazandarani proverbs. The following question, nonetheless, were raised:
1. Which of the types of jugs is the mostly used in face making and are there proverbs in the conceptual fields?
2. with what mechanism are most of the proverbs made from the jar and in which conceptual fields have they appeared?
3. In these parables, is there a reference to the type of soil and also to the technique of making and finishing the jars?
The main discussion
The proverbs of "jug" in Mazandarani language can be analyzed from two perspectives: 1. The use of jugs in the literary and anthropological fields, most samples of which focus on the coexistence of jugs with other elements, which were poured into its heart; 2. Reflecting the process and techniques of making and paying in proverbs. Based on the collected data, the types of jars that can be seen in Mazandarani proverbs are: "Kelā", "pilak", "pilkā", and "gƏmi", each of which is were investigated separately and according to the application scale.
Usually, in the specialized examination of pottery, attention is paid to features such as period, primary material, and manufacturing technique, patterns, etc. Clay is used to produce pottery in Mazandaran, and the most important tool for making jars is the pottery wheel (Kerimi et al., 2012, p. 94). In the reviewed examples, there is no mention of the material, the type of soil, or the technique of making and finishing the jars. In some proverbs, the spherical nature of clay jars is mentioned.
Conclusion
The most important jars in Mazandarani proverbs are: "Kelā", "pilak", "pilkā", and "gƏmi". In practical and conceptual fields, "Kelā" has the most diverse concepts, most of which are presented by showing the appearance of the jar. The conceptual field of "pilkā" emphasizes more on "the companionship of two people". The presence of elements of nature, especially elements such as water and the products of animal husbandry and agriculture, is one of the anthropological characteristics in proverbs. In the meantime, the most connection between the jar is with the word water, and after that, the products of animal husbandry, which are related to the jar. Then, there is the connection with rice and other grains. Among the other anthropological aspects of parables is the hitting of jars and their breaking, which is rooted in the beliefs and games of Mazandarani. From a literary point of view, all the features belonging to the coordinates of parables can be seen. Creators like these are not interested in mentioning the type and type of soil, as well as the technique of making and finishing the jars.
References
Ismailzadeh, Kh., Sadeghi-Nejad, R., & Mohammad Zadeh, M. (2021). Analyzing the structure of proverbs made from "Cebu" pottery. Quarterly Allegorical Research in Persian language and Literature, 13(47), 1-16.
Karimi, S., Qajrian Mahfrozi, A., & Hassan Nejad, P. (2012). Technology and documentation of Joibar pottery. Collection of articles of Tabarstan National Art Conference (past and present). With the efforts of Mustafa Rostami. Mazandaran: University of Mazandaran.
Mostafa mirdar rezaei,
Volume 17, Issue 66 (8-2024)
Volume 17, Issue 66 (8-2024)
Abstract
After Islam appearance, Persian rhetoric first originates from the Quran and Arabic rhetoric, and later, by translating the works of Greek philosophers, Islamic rhetoric and accordingly Persian rhetoric is deeply influenced by Western works and rhetoric. Therefore, the literary works, especially the aesthetic tools of the knowledge of expression in Persian rhetoric are influenced by the Arabic and Western rhetorical manners; or at least they have some similarities. However, by considering the system of rhetoric and reviewing Persian literary industries, we find out that a type of these techniques, i.e. combined artworks, despite the dependence and correlation with Arabic and Western rhetorical techniques, is of special independence and monopoly. They have found that we do not see the same in other rhetorical manners. This survey, which is written in a descriptive-analytical way, tries to show that by examining the similarities between the methods of Persian rhetoric and Arabic and Western rhetorical manners, the combined artworks are specific to the coordinates of Persian rhetoric and other manners. The result of this research confirms that Persian rhetoric, due to the ability to reflect the cultural and ethnic elements of irony, as well as the double reading of its essential and necessary dimensions. Of course, this issue is more than a claim, it is an invitation from the experts in the aforementioned fields, which ultimately, whether the author's opinion is rejected or accepted, will be considered a new achievement for the field of rhetoric.
Extended Abstract
After Islam appearance, Persian rhetoric first originates from the Qur'an, and this book becomes a source of inspiration and the extraction of rhetorical rules. Factors such as justifying the challenge and proving Quranic rhetoric, the influence of non-Arabic works (Persian, Roman, Greek, and Indian) in Islamic culture, etc., provide the necessary prerequisites for motivating Muslim rhetoricians and formulating rhetorical opinions. But over time, especially from the 2nd century of Hijri onwards, with the translation of the works of Greek philosophers, Islamic rhetoric is strongly influenced by it, and especially it imposes rhetorical and logical standards on classical rhetoric. During this period, some of the works of Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were also translated into the official language of that time, i.e. Arabic, and left a positive impact in the field of Islamic rhetoric. With these explanations, what is certain is that Persian rhetoric after Islam was formed and matured under the influence and under the influence of Arabic (Islamic) and Greek (Western) rhetoric. One of the manifestations of this influence is the presence of common literary works, especially the aesthetic tools of expression in Persian rhetoric.
However, by considering the system of rhetoric and reviewing Persian literary industries, we find that a type of these techniques, i.e., hybrid art structures, despite the dependence and correlation with Arabic and Western rhetorical techniques, is of special independence and monopoly. They have found that we do not see the same in other rhetorical manners (Arabic and Western). Of course, this issue is more than a claim, it is an invitation from the experts in the aforementioned fields, which in the end, whether the author's opinion is rejected or accepted, is considered a new achievement for the field of rhetoric. In more precise terms, if there are no combined works of art in the Western and Arabic rhetorical system, while the author's opinion is correct, a special and different aspect of the climate of Persian rhetoric will be displayed, and if the aforementioned techniques are in the Western rhetorical system, Arabic and... can be observed, opening a new horizon for new and comparative studies in this field (exploring the structure of images of rhetorical manners of other languages).
This essay, which is written in a descriptive-analytical way, tries to show that by examining the similarities of Persian rhetorical manners with Arabic and Western ones, that the hybrid art forms are specific to the coordinates of Persian rhetoric and the rhetorical manner of other cultures. They are deprived of this kind of aesthetic tools.
Despite the differences between Persian, Arabic, and Western rhetorical manners, in general, these manners are common in using some literary techniques, especially the individual artifices. The point to be noted in this regard is the relative similarity and independence of strategies in different rhetorical manners; That is, literary elements such as simile, metaphor, etc., have an almost similar and independent presence in the geography of Western, Arab, and Persian rhetoric, and each method has an aesthetic function, separate and apart from other methods. However, in the context of Persian rhetoric, in addition to being separate and independent, these techniques also have a mixed and mixed quality, and this is the dividing line between Persian rhetoric and Arabic and Western rhetoric.
Considering the ability to reflect the cultural and ethnic elements of irony, as well as the double reading of its necessary and necessary dimensions, and also due to the inherent coordinates of the Persian language in the area of combinability, with the combination of individual techniques, independent industries and It creates a uniqueness that is specific to Persian rhetoric and we do not see a sign of it in other rhetorical manners (Arabic and Western). It is the existence of these art structures that ultimately causes the formation of the Indian style, and the construction of many images of this style have been created with the help of these art structures, and basically the analysis of the structure of the Indian style images (and many other images) styles without using these combined tools will be better and incomplete.
At the end of this research, it is necessary to repeatedly acknowledge that the topic of this survey (the relevance of composite works of art to Persian rhetoric) is more than a claim, it is an invitation to experts in the field of rhetoric in other languages and an opening of horizons. New for new and comparative studies in this field (exploring the structure of images of rhetorical manners of other languages).
Extended Abstract
After Islam appearance, Persian rhetoric first originates from the Qur'an, and this book becomes a source of inspiration and the extraction of rhetorical rules. Factors such as justifying the challenge and proving Quranic rhetoric, the influence of non-Arabic works (Persian, Roman, Greek, and Indian) in Islamic culture, etc., provide the necessary prerequisites for motivating Muslim rhetoricians and formulating rhetorical opinions. But over time, especially from the 2nd century of Hijri onwards, with the translation of the works of Greek philosophers, Islamic rhetoric is strongly influenced by it, and especially it imposes rhetorical and logical standards on classical rhetoric. During this period, some of the works of Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were also translated into the official language of that time, i.e. Arabic, and left a positive impact in the field of Islamic rhetoric. With these explanations, what is certain is that Persian rhetoric after Islam was formed and matured under the influence and under the influence of Arabic (Islamic) and Greek (Western) rhetoric. One of the manifestations of this influence is the presence of common literary works, especially the aesthetic tools of expression in Persian rhetoric.
However, by considering the system of rhetoric and reviewing Persian literary industries, we find that a type of these techniques, i.e., hybrid art structures, despite the dependence and correlation with Arabic and Western rhetorical techniques, is of special independence and monopoly. They have found that we do not see the same in other rhetorical manners (Arabic and Western). Of course, this issue is more than a claim, it is an invitation from the experts in the aforementioned fields, which in the end, whether the author's opinion is rejected or accepted, is considered a new achievement for the field of rhetoric. In more precise terms, if there are no combined works of art in the Western and Arabic rhetorical system, while the author's opinion is correct, a special and different aspect of the climate of Persian rhetoric will be displayed, and if the aforementioned techniques are in the Western rhetorical system, Arabic and... can be observed, opening a new horizon for new and comparative studies in this field (exploring the structure of images of rhetorical manners of other languages).
This essay, which is written in a descriptive-analytical way, tries to show that by examining the similarities of Persian rhetorical manners with Arabic and Western ones, that the hybrid art forms are specific to the coordinates of Persian rhetoric and the rhetorical manner of other cultures. They are deprived of this kind of aesthetic tools.
Despite the differences between Persian, Arabic, and Western rhetorical manners, in general, these manners are common in using some literary techniques, especially the individual artifices. The point to be noted in this regard is the relative similarity and independence of strategies in different rhetorical manners; That is, literary elements such as simile, metaphor, etc., have an almost similar and independent presence in the geography of Western, Arab, and Persian rhetoric, and each method has an aesthetic function, separate and apart from other methods. However, in the context of Persian rhetoric, in addition to being separate and independent, these techniques also have a mixed and mixed quality, and this is the dividing line between Persian rhetoric and Arabic and Western rhetoric.
Considering the ability to reflect the cultural and ethnic elements of irony, as well as the double reading of its necessary and necessary dimensions, and also due to the inherent coordinates of the Persian language in the area of combinability, with the combination of individual techniques, independent industries and It creates a uniqueness that is specific to Persian rhetoric and we do not see a sign of it in other rhetorical manners (Arabic and Western). It is the existence of these art structures that ultimately causes the formation of the Indian style, and the construction of many images of this style have been created with the help of these art structures, and basically the analysis of the structure of the Indian style images (and many other images) styles without using these combined tools will be better and incomplete.
At the end of this research, it is necessary to repeatedly acknowledge that the topic of this survey (the relevance of composite works of art to Persian rhetoric) is more than a claim, it is an invitation to experts in the field of rhetoric in other languages and an opening of horizons. New for new and comparative studies in this field (exploring the structure of images of rhetorical manners of other languages).
Farzad Baloo, Mostafa mirdar rezaei,
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Abstract
Contrary to the Western tradition, which has long occupied the minds and language of some philosophers with an irreconcilable conflict between philosophy and poetry, in our tradition, although philosophy is often mentioned as a curse, our philosophers have frequently maintained a positive attitude toward poetry. Among them, in the contemporary period, a philosopher named Mahmoud Homan stands out. This research examines and analyzes Homan’s views on poetry and related issues using a descriptive-analytical method—a topic that has been overlooked in contemporary research. The results of this research show that in his first intellectual period, Homan, inspired by the achievements of Western philosophers (Kant and Schopenhauer) and Iranian-Islamic philosophers (Shams Qays Roziy), as well as his own reflections on the nature and essence of poetry, considered rhythm, rhyme, and meter essential. From Shams Qays, he incorporates fantasy, expanding it conceptually with influences from Kant and Schopenhauer, while also adding the two conditions of grace and brevity. It is clear that this definition of poetry aligns more closely with the atmosphere of classical poetry. Additionally, he presents thoughtful observations about the cause of poetry’s effect in relation to poetic elements, the poet’s characteristics, the semantic foundations of descriptive and symbolic poetry, and a philosophical analysis of the power of imagination, among other topics. Following Kant, Homan does not attribute epistemological dimensions to poetry. However, in his second period of thought, Homan, influenced by Husserlian phenomenology, revisits his earlier definition of poetry with a focus on contemporary poetry, excluding features such as rhyme and meter as essential elements. Instead, he introduces a subjective-objective aspect to the beauty of the poem.
Extended Abstract
Regarding the essence of poetry-particularly from a philosophical perspective-extensive discussions have taken place since ancient times, from Plato (in The Republic) and Aristotle (Poetics) to modern thinkers like Heidegger (Being and Time). In Iran, too, intellectuals spanning from early figures such as Avicenna (in the introduction to the ninth art of the logic section of The Book of Healing) and Shams Qays Roziy (Al-Mu’jam fi Ma’ayir Ash’ar al-’Ajam) to contemporary scholars have sought to define the nature of poetry. Among the philosophers of the modern era who addressed the question ”What is poetry?” from a philosophical standpoint was Mahmoud Hooman (1908–1980). A chemical engineer, writer, and professor at the Universities of Tehran, Tarbiat Moallem, and Tabriz, Hooman earned his doctorate in philosophy from the Sorbonne University in France.
Alongside philosophical and historical books (such as History of Philosophy, Philosophical Lectures, Ancient History of Iran, The Mongol Invasion of Iran, etc.) that Hooman authored, he has two important books in the field of literature in which he presents valuable discussions regarding the nature and characteristics of poetry. The first book is titled Hafez, in which Hooman-particularly in its first section (“What Does Hafez Say?”)-poses and elaborates on topics such as: What is poetry?, Who is a poet?, What is the reason for the impact of poetry?, and so on. The other book is What is Poetry?, which is essentially a dialogue concerning “the essence of poetry” between Hooman and one of his students, Ismail Khoei. In this book, published several years after the previous work (Hafez), some of Hooman’s views on poetry have changed.
The present study, written in a descriptive-analytical manner and utilizing library resources, seeks to examine and analyze Hooman’s views-as one of the prominent contemporary thinkers and philosophers-regarding the nature and essence of poetry.
In a general classification, Hooman’s views on ”what is poetry”-can be divided into two sections-or, more accurately, into two distinct intellectual periods. In the first intellectual period, Hooman’s perception of the nature of poetry is organized through a combination of literary and philosophical viewpoints rooted in Persian literary tradition and the Western philosophical tradition. Inspired by and under the influence of Shams Qays, Kant, and Schopenhauer (or Schopenhoer, as he himself put it), he seeks to answer the age-old question ”what is poetry?”-though he conditions this definition with two requirements: ”grace” and ”brevity”. Hooman derives meter, rhyme, and symmetry from Shams Qays; the quality of being imaginative (in a conceptually expanded sense) from Kant and Schopenhauer; and he himself adds the two conditions of grace and brevity. In his view, the distinctiveness of poetry depends on the presence of all these features in speech. The absence of any of these features causes the poetic quality to fade, giving rise to other literary forms-namely, versified speech and artificial speech.
In the second intellectual period, Hooman-revising his views on the nature and essence of poetry with a broader perspective on contemporary poetry-removes features such as rhyme and symmetry from the essential components of poetry. In this new approach, he argues that knowledge of poetic rules and devices (and consequently possessing rhythm, specifically metrical rhythm or bahr), “having rhyme,” and “having equal parts” are no longer necessary conditions or inherent features of poetry. In his revised understanding, rhythm now signifies musicality [آهنگ], standing in contrast to the Greek concept of taktos-meaning “according to a fixed and specific rule and system”-which largely corresponds to “meter” in its traditional sense. Through this redefinition, Hooman ultimately concludes that poetry is melodic, short, graceful, and imaginative speech. During this second intellectual period, Hooman demonstrates a stronger inclination toward Husserlian phenomenology. Rather than emphasizing the language-centered aspects of poetry (as the Formalists do), he prioritizes its intellectual and meaning-centered dimensions, considering them fundamental to poetic expression.
Undoubtedly, within the body of research on poetry, Hooman’s reflections on the nature and constituent elements of poetry stand-if not unparalleled-as exceptionally rare when compared to the views of contemporary Iranian writers and scholars. Occupying a distinct historical position, he attempts to utilize history as a generative source for data concerning poetic definition, subsequently engaging in philosophical inquiry both in defining poetry and explicating its general principles.
While it is true that during his first intellectual period he was profoundly influenced-primarily by Kant and secondarily by Schopenhauer-his incorporation of features such as conciseness and grace as fundamental pillars of poetry enables him to transcend the formalistic constraints of Kant’s approach. Instead, he emphasizes how poetry is expressed and its underlying meaning. Consequently, symbolic texts permitting multiple interpretations are accorded greater value than panegyrics and odes.
In his second intellectual period, Hooman’s evaluation of beauty and definition of poetry undergo a significant shift. He abandons Kant’s subjective perspective, adopting instead a Husserlian phenomenological approach that acknowledges the interdependence of subjective and objective dimensions in the poet-audience relationship, as well as in judgments of beauty and poetic definition. This represents a departure from his earlier definition, aiming to establish a more expansive framework capable of assessing both classical and contemporary Persian poetry.
Within the historical context of poetic definition in our tradition, Hooman emerges as one of the few thinkers to construct a philosophical-intellectual system capable of artistically illuminating poetry’s multifaceted and often concealed dimensions-a system that remains relevant for contemporary poetry criticism and research. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Hooman’s poetic theory was inevitably shaped by his historical context. The definition of poetry has since broadened, with corresponding shifts in evaluative criteria and foundational principles. For instance, his meaning-centric perspective may not fully align with certain poetic movements, such as Barahani’s language-oriented poetry or various postmodern poetic trends.
Extended Abstract
Regarding the essence of poetry-particularly from a philosophical perspective-extensive discussions have taken place since ancient times, from Plato (in The Republic) and Aristotle (Poetics) to modern thinkers like Heidegger (Being and Time). In Iran, too, intellectuals spanning from early figures such as Avicenna (in the introduction to the ninth art of the logic section of The Book of Healing) and Shams Qays Roziy (Al-Mu’jam fi Ma’ayir Ash’ar al-’Ajam) to contemporary scholars have sought to define the nature of poetry. Among the philosophers of the modern era who addressed the question ”What is poetry?” from a philosophical standpoint was Mahmoud Hooman (1908–1980). A chemical engineer, writer, and professor at the Universities of Tehran, Tarbiat Moallem, and Tabriz, Hooman earned his doctorate in philosophy from the Sorbonne University in France.
Alongside philosophical and historical books (such as History of Philosophy, Philosophical Lectures, Ancient History of Iran, The Mongol Invasion of Iran, etc.) that Hooman authored, he has two important books in the field of literature in which he presents valuable discussions regarding the nature and characteristics of poetry. The first book is titled Hafez, in which Hooman-particularly in its first section (“What Does Hafez Say?”)-poses and elaborates on topics such as: What is poetry?, Who is a poet?, What is the reason for the impact of poetry?, and so on. The other book is What is Poetry?, which is essentially a dialogue concerning “the essence of poetry” between Hooman and one of his students, Ismail Khoei. In this book, published several years after the previous work (Hafez), some of Hooman’s views on poetry have changed.
The present study, written in a descriptive-analytical manner and utilizing library resources, seeks to examine and analyze Hooman’s views-as one of the prominent contemporary thinkers and philosophers-regarding the nature and essence of poetry.
In a general classification, Hooman’s views on ”what is poetry”-can be divided into two sections-or, more accurately, into two distinct intellectual periods. In the first intellectual period, Hooman’s perception of the nature of poetry is organized through a combination of literary and philosophical viewpoints rooted in Persian literary tradition and the Western philosophical tradition. Inspired by and under the influence of Shams Qays, Kant, and Schopenhauer (or Schopenhoer, as he himself put it), he seeks to answer the age-old question ”what is poetry?”-though he conditions this definition with two requirements: ”grace” and ”brevity”. Hooman derives meter, rhyme, and symmetry from Shams Qays; the quality of being imaginative (in a conceptually expanded sense) from Kant and Schopenhauer; and he himself adds the two conditions of grace and brevity. In his view, the distinctiveness of poetry depends on the presence of all these features in speech. The absence of any of these features causes the poetic quality to fade, giving rise to other literary forms-namely, versified speech and artificial speech.
In the second intellectual period, Hooman-revising his views on the nature and essence of poetry with a broader perspective on contemporary poetry-removes features such as rhyme and symmetry from the essential components of poetry. In this new approach, he argues that knowledge of poetic rules and devices (and consequently possessing rhythm, specifically metrical rhythm or bahr), “having rhyme,” and “having equal parts” are no longer necessary conditions or inherent features of poetry. In his revised understanding, rhythm now signifies musicality [آهنگ], standing in contrast to the Greek concept of taktos-meaning “according to a fixed and specific rule and system”-which largely corresponds to “meter” in its traditional sense. Through this redefinition, Hooman ultimately concludes that poetry is melodic, short, graceful, and imaginative speech. During this second intellectual period, Hooman demonstrates a stronger inclination toward Husserlian phenomenology. Rather than emphasizing the language-centered aspects of poetry (as the Formalists do), he prioritizes its intellectual and meaning-centered dimensions, considering them fundamental to poetic expression.
Undoubtedly, within the body of research on poetry, Hooman’s reflections on the nature and constituent elements of poetry stand-if not unparalleled-as exceptionally rare when compared to the views of contemporary Iranian writers and scholars. Occupying a distinct historical position, he attempts to utilize history as a generative source for data concerning poetic definition, subsequently engaging in philosophical inquiry both in defining poetry and explicating its general principles.
While it is true that during his first intellectual period he was profoundly influenced-primarily by Kant and secondarily by Schopenhauer-his incorporation of features such as conciseness and grace as fundamental pillars of poetry enables him to transcend the formalistic constraints of Kant’s approach. Instead, he emphasizes how poetry is expressed and its underlying meaning. Consequently, symbolic texts permitting multiple interpretations are accorded greater value than panegyrics and odes.
In his second intellectual period, Hooman’s evaluation of beauty and definition of poetry undergo a significant shift. He abandons Kant’s subjective perspective, adopting instead a Husserlian phenomenological approach that acknowledges the interdependence of subjective and objective dimensions in the poet-audience relationship, as well as in judgments of beauty and poetic definition. This represents a departure from his earlier definition, aiming to establish a more expansive framework capable of assessing both classical and contemporary Persian poetry.
Within the historical context of poetic definition in our tradition, Hooman emerges as one of the few thinkers to construct a philosophical-intellectual system capable of artistically illuminating poetry’s multifaceted and often concealed dimensions-a system that remains relevant for contemporary poetry criticism and research. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Hooman’s poetic theory was inevitably shaped by his historical context. The definition of poetry has since broadened, with corresponding shifts in evaluative criteria and foundational principles. For instance, his meaning-centric perspective may not fully align with certain poetic movements, such as Barahani’s language-oriented poetry or various postmodern poetic trends.
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