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Volume 8, Issue 35 (11-2020)
Abstract
It is generally believed that the origin of the Rubayi meter should be found in the meters of the pre-Islamic poetry, particularly the folk and oral poetries. Gilbert Lazard is the only person who has done a detailed analysis of the peculiarities and similarities of the Rubayi prosody with the non-prosodic features of the folk and oral poetries. This study argues that there are many stressed or semi-prosodic poems in the folk and oral poetries of Iran, the rhythm of which is very similar to the rhythm of Rubayi, but they are not related to the meter of Rubayi so far as the prosody distinction is concerned. Lazard believes that the Rubayi meter has fundamentally the same meter of the stressed and semi-prosodic local poems, but his method is rather flawed. This study, however, argues that the stressed and non-stressed syllables in the stressed poems turn into short and long quantities in prosodic poems. Moreover, the isochronism and the consonants which come after the stressed syllable or sometimes at the end of the verse, are omitted in the prosodic poems. Therefore, the isochronic meters in the stress position are firstly turned into the semi-prosodic meters and then to the fixed linguistic and quantitative meters.
Introduction
Poetic meters are of two types: isochronic and prosodic. The child and oral poetries in most of the languages of the world follow the isochronic meters. Linguistic meters employ prosodic features in their structure such as syllable, stress, intonation, and tone. Time does not affect their metric structure. The Persian prosodic poems, or the English stressed poems and all the learned ones, are all considered as linguistic poems around the world (Arooyi, 2009, pp. 1-35). Almost all the researchers who have done a study on Rubayi meters are in line with Shams Gheys (1981, pp. 111-113) believing that the Iranian poets of the 3rd century AH have borrowed this meter from the oral and folk poetries of the pre-Islamic period. This study shows that there are many stressed poems from the oral and folk poetries that have a similar rhythm to that of the Rubayi, but their meters is not much related to the prosodic meter of Rubayi.
Research background
Most of the researchers believe that the origin of Rubayi meters should be found in the pre-Islamic period, particularly in the oral and folk poetries of Iran. Gilbert Lazard is the only person who has done a detailed analysis of the peculiarities and similarities of the Rubayi prosody with the non-prosodic features of the folk and oral poetries (Lazard, 1969; for a critical review see Tabibzadeh, 2016). Lazard believes that the meters of Rubayi is fundamentally same with the meters of the stressed poems and the semi-prosodic local poems, but his method is flawed.
Discussion
Rubayi has two major meters, each of which has many variations[1]. One meter is "Mostafal Mostafal Mostafal Fa" which is part of the "Mostafala" category (type A, see Najafi, 2017, pp.140-144). The other meter is "Mostafal Faelat Mostafal Fa" which is part of the "Mostafal Faelat" category (type B, see Najafi, 2017, pp. 395-397).
In teaching the rhythm of the poetry to the readers, the poems were broken down to their Atanin components instead of distinguishing the verses through their Afayil components. This meant turning the linguistic and quantitative meters into the older isochronic and stressed meters. It should be noted that breaking down the verses into the Atanin components, "t" is the short non-stressed sound, and "tan" is the long stressed sound. Therefore, the two major meters of Rubayi are (Tabibizadeh, 2020):
Type A: tn tn tttn tn tttn tn tttn
Mostafal Mostafal Mostafal Fa
Type B: tn tn tttn ttn ttn tn tttn
Mostafal Faelat Mostafal Fa
The linguistic meter of Rubayi or perhaps the meters of all longer and shorter verses could be included in "Mostafal" and "Mostafal Faelat", which are all copied from the old folk and oral poetries of Iran. In this process, firstly the role of the stressed meter is omitted and the short non-stressed sounds and the long stressed sounds are turned into the short and long sounds respectively, which do not have the stressed meter any more. Moreover, all the rests are omitted as well.
Tanha tu kooche naria (Do not go to the alley alone)
tn tn tttn tttn
Mostafalo Mostafal
Aknoon ke chenin zaram // bar man nakoni rahmat (now that I am crying // do not have mercy on me) (Najafi, 2017, p. 400).
If in those oral poems in which the rhythm is similar to the rhythm of Rubayi, the non-stressed sound (t in Atanin) is replaced with the short quantity, and instead of stressed sounds (tn in Atanin), the long quantity is used, the results are either of the two meters in Rubayi. This is actually one of the techniques the poets of the 3rd and 4th centuries AH employed to have a meter unlike that of the Arabic ones for the sake of having more pleasant poem for the Persian readers. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Rubayi meter is extracted from the oral and folk poetries of Iran.
References
Aroui, J., & Arleo, A. (eds.) (2009). Towards a typology of poetic forms; from language to metrics and beyond. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Lazard, G. (1969). Ahu-ye kuhi...: le chamois d’Abu Hafs Soghdiane et les origins du robai, Dans: W. B. Henning Memorial Volume. London, pp. 238 - 244.
Shams Gheys Razi (1981). on the wat to Arabic poetry (edited by Mohammad Taghi Modares Razavi). Zavar.
Tabibzadeh, A. (2016). Meter of "Ahooye Koohi" attributed to Abolhafz Saghdi. Today's Iranshahr, 3, 70-79.
Tabibzadeh, A. (2020). An analysis of the poetic meter in folk Persian literature (2nd ed.). Bahar.
Introduction
Poetic meters are of two types: isochronic and prosodic. The child and oral poetries in most of the languages of the world follow the isochronic meters. Linguistic meters employ prosodic features in their structure such as syllable, stress, intonation, and tone. Time does not affect their metric structure. The Persian prosodic poems, or the English stressed poems and all the learned ones, are all considered as linguistic poems around the world (Arooyi, 2009, pp. 1-35). Almost all the researchers who have done a study on Rubayi meters are in line with Shams Gheys (1981, pp. 111-113) believing that the Iranian poets of the 3rd century AH have borrowed this meter from the oral and folk poetries of the pre-Islamic period. This study shows that there are many stressed poems from the oral and folk poetries that have a similar rhythm to that of the Rubayi, but their meters is not much related to the prosodic meter of Rubayi.
Research background
Most of the researchers believe that the origin of Rubayi meters should be found in the pre-Islamic period, particularly in the oral and folk poetries of Iran. Gilbert Lazard is the only person who has done a detailed analysis of the peculiarities and similarities of the Rubayi prosody with the non-prosodic features of the folk and oral poetries (Lazard, 1969; for a critical review see Tabibzadeh, 2016). Lazard believes that the meters of Rubayi is fundamentally same with the meters of the stressed poems and the semi-prosodic local poems, but his method is flawed.
Discussion
Rubayi has two major meters, each of which has many variations[1]. One meter is "Mostafal Mostafal Mostafal Fa" which is part of the "Mostafala" category (type A, see Najafi, 2017, pp.140-144). The other meter is "Mostafal Faelat Mostafal Fa" which is part of the "Mostafal Faelat" category (type B, see Najafi, 2017, pp. 395-397).
In teaching the rhythm of the poetry to the readers, the poems were broken down to their Atanin components instead of distinguishing the verses through their Afayil components. This meant turning the linguistic and quantitative meters into the older isochronic and stressed meters. It should be noted that breaking down the verses into the Atanin components, "t" is the short non-stressed sound, and "tan" is the long stressed sound. Therefore, the two major meters of Rubayi are (Tabibizadeh, 2020):
Type A: tn tn tttn tn tttn tn tttn
Mostafal Mostafal Mostafal Fa
Type B: tn tn tttn ttn ttn tn tttn
Mostafal Faelat Mostafal Fa
The linguistic meter of Rubayi or perhaps the meters of all longer and shorter verses could be included in "Mostafal" and "Mostafal Faelat", which are all copied from the old folk and oral poetries of Iran. In this process, firstly the role of the stressed meter is omitted and the short non-stressed sounds and the long stressed sounds are turned into the short and long sounds respectively, which do not have the stressed meter any more. Moreover, all the rests are omitted as well.
Tanha tu kooche naria (Do not go to the alley alone)
tn tn tttn tttn
Mostafalo Mostafal
Aknoon ke chenin zaram // bar man nakoni rahmat (now that I am crying // do not have mercy on me) (Najafi, 2017, p. 400).
If in those oral poems in which the rhythm is similar to the rhythm of Rubayi, the non-stressed sound (t in Atanin) is replaced with the short quantity, and instead of stressed sounds (tn in Atanin), the long quantity is used, the results are either of the two meters in Rubayi. This is actually one of the techniques the poets of the 3rd and 4th centuries AH employed to have a meter unlike that of the Arabic ones for the sake of having more pleasant poem for the Persian readers. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Rubayi meter is extracted from the oral and folk poetries of Iran.
References
Aroui, J., & Arleo, A. (eds.) (2009). Towards a typology of poetic forms; from language to metrics and beyond. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Lazard, G. (1969). Ahu-ye kuhi...: le chamois d’Abu Hafs Soghdiane et les origins du robai, Dans: W. B. Henning Memorial Volume. London, pp. 238 - 244.
Shams Gheys Razi (1981). on the wat to Arabic poetry (edited by Mohammad Taghi Modares Razavi). Zavar.
Tabibzadeh, A. (2016). Meter of "Ahooye Koohi" attributed to Abolhafz Saghdi. Today's Iranshahr, 3, 70-79.
Tabibzadeh, A. (2020). An analysis of the poetic meter in folk Persian literature (2nd ed.). Bahar.
[1]. This study follows the categorization suggested by Najafi (2018)
Omid Tabibzadeh Ghamsari,
Volume 17, Issue 66 (8-2024)
Volume 17, Issue 66 (8-2024)
Abstract
Malakout is a postmodern novel, and what is important in the analysis of a postmodern novel is related mostly to the description of certain literary techniques, which are used to emphasize the futility of the old meanings. These works have characteristics that without paying attention to them, one cannot expect a logical evaluation of the work. Some of these postmodern features and techniques which are very important in this novel and will be discussed here are as follows: meta-fiction, intertextuality, fragmentation, black humor, pastiche, temporal distortion, minimalism, and finally grotesque.
Extended Abstract
Bahram Sadeghi first published his short novel Malkout in a journal in 1340/ 1961 (Sadeghi, 1961). He made some additions and corrections in it shortly after that publication, but he himself did not take any action to republish the work. About 10 years later, Abolhasan Najafi, Sadeghi’s friend and master, edited this novel and some other short stories by Sadeghi and published them all in the form of a collection of Bahram Sadeghi's works. Since then, this novel and other short stories have been published several times by various publishers.
The first chapter of the novel Malkout by Bahram Sadeghi has an epigraph that is in fact a verse from the Qur'an:فَبَشِّر هُم بِعذاب الیم [Give them good news of a painful torment] (Q 84: 24). “فَبَشِّر” in Arabic means “give good news”, but in this verse, the word "good news" is used to express painful and tormenting news! Here we are dealing with a so called sarcastic metaphor, and the novel Malkout by Bahram Saldaghi (1340/ 1962) can be considered altogether as an extended form of this sarcastic metaphor (see also Aslani, 2019; 2021).
The fact is that Malakout is a postmodern novel, and neglecting this fact has caused many critics of the novel to pay more attention to its epistemological details rather than to its ontological nature. What is important in the analysis of a postmodern novel, rather than revealing its meanings, is related to the description of certain literary techniques, which are used to emphasize the futility of the old meanings. Malakout, like detective novels, has many secrets and there are many clues with the help of which one can unravel some of its mysteries and riddles (Shiri, 2005; Sᾱ’edi, 1992). If the mysteries and riddles in detective novels are finally solved completely, the solution of many mysteries of Malakout, like many other postmodern novels, are due to the readers themselves. Each reader must solve the mysteries and riddles in his or her own way and gives his or her own meaning to the novel (Ebrahimi Fakhari, 2019).
Apart from the importance of the reader's role in the interpretation of the novel, these works have other characteristics that without paying attention to them, one cannot expect a logical evaluation of the work. Some of these postmodern features and techniques which are very important in this novel and will be discussed here are as follows: meta-fiction (Waugh, 1984), intertextuality, fragmentation, black humor, pastiche, temporal distortion, minimalism, and finally grotesque (Lehmann 2005; Barry, 2002; Imhof 1986; Imhof 1986).
Malkout can be seen as a satirical imitation of texts such as the Old Testament and the New Testament, and Ykolia and her Loneliness (Modarresi, 1334/ 1955). One of the most important features of postmodern novels is satire and ridicule of moral beliefs and social and cultural institutions ruling the society (Safi Pirludje, 2015; Hutcheon, 1988; Genette, 1980); Sadeghi by using techniques such as meta-fiction, black humor, pastiche and grotesque, mocked the images of mythological characters such as Jehovah, Satan, Ab (Father or Christian God) and Christ. He mocked the authority of the strongest cultural institutions of his time, which ironically and day by day were to take a greater importance and power so that they finally took the upper hand in Iran.
This novel is the first successful post-modern novel in the Persian language, and apart from its aesthetic values and literary importance, it shows the great power of the Persian language in expressing new mentalities and creating new spaces that have not had the slightest history in this language. The modern Persian novel started with the Blind Owl of Sadegh Hedayat, and Persian novel with Malkout Bahram Sadeghi stepped into another completely new stage called postmodern (see also Ghasri 2022; Nadjafi 2020; Honarmand 2011).
References
Aslani, M. R., 2019, Bᾱzmᾱnde-hᾱ-ye Qaribi Āshenᾱ…, Tehran, Niloufar Publisher.
Aslani, M. R., 2021, “Jᾱvedᾱnegi”, Bahram Sadeghi; Tᾱrikh-e shafᾱhi-ye Dᾱastᾱn-Nevisᾱn-e Iran, edited by Hamed Ghasri, Tehran, Kettab-e Sarzamin.
Ebrahimi Fakhari, M. M., and Sharifnasab, M., 2019, “Barresi-ye Sdze-ye Modern dar Bouf-e Kour-e Sadegh-e Hedayat”, Naqd Va Nazari-je-je Adabi, vol. 4, Winter, No.2.
Genette, G., 1980, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, translated by J. E. Lewin Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press.
Ghasri, H., 2022, Bahrᾱm Sᾱdeghi; Tᾱrikh-e Shafᾱhi-e Dᾱstᾱn-Nevisi Iran, Tehran, Ketᾱb-e Sarzamin.
Honarmand, Saeed, 2011, “MALAKUT”, in: Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2011, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/malakut (accessed on 16 October 2017).
Hutcheon, Linda, 1988, A Poetics of Postmodernism, London, Routledge. pp. 202-203.
Imhof, Rüdiger, 1986, Contemporary Metafiction – A Poetological Study of Metafiction in English since 1939, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.
Lehmann, H. T., 2005, Post-dramatic Theatre, Rutledge.
Lewis, Barry, 2002, “Postmodernism and Literature”, in: The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism, edited by Stuart Sim, Routledge, pp. 121-134.
Modarresi, T., 1971, Yakoliyᾱ va Tanhᾱ’i-ye ’u, Tehran, Nil Publisher.
Nadjafi, A. H., 2020, Goft-o-go bᾱ Abol-Hasan Nadjafi, ed. By Omid Tabibzadeh, Tehran, Niloufar Publisher.
Sadeghi, B., 1961, “Malakout”, Ketᾱb-e Hafte, No. 12, 7-100.
Sadeghi, B., 2000, Malakout, Tehran, Ketᾱb-e Zamᾱn.
Safi Pirludje, H., 2015, Ravᾱyat Padzuhi dar Zamᾱn; Sanjesh-e Ravesh-hᾱ-je Ghesse-Gu’I va Dᾱstᾱn-nevisi dar Fᾱrsi, Tehran, Padzuheshgᾱh-e Olum-e Ensᾱni va Motᾱle’ᾱt-e Farhangi.
Shiri, Gh., 2005, “Pasᾱmodernism va Maktab-e Dᾱstᾱn-nevisi-ye Esfahᾱn”, Majale-ye Daneshkade-ye Adabijᾱt-e Dᾱneshgᾱh-e Esfehᾱn, Vol. 2, 43, Winter, 167-198.
Sᾱ’edi, Gh., 1992, “Honar-e Dᾱstᾱn-Nevisi-ye Bahram Sadeghi”, Kelk, No. 32 and 33.
Waugh, Patricia, 1984, Metafiction – The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction, London, New York: Routledge.
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