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Showing 11 results for Algooneh Juneghani
Volume 0, Issue 0 (Articles accepted at the time of publication 2024)
Abstract
Tension, as one of the concepts proposed by formalist and structuralists, can lead to a structured whole in a literary work. Accordingly, the study of tension among the poetic components is of particular importance. However, it seems that despite the researches that deal with tension and its application in different texts, there is no systematic research which deals with tension and its structural factors. On the other hand, Manouchehr Atashi's poems have special features due to their stable structural framework, and a reading that can study the issue of tension and how it occurs in his poems seems necessary. Accordingly, in this research, we have tried to study tension and its structural factors in Manouchehr Atashi's poems with an analytical-descriptive analytical approach. Therefore, relying on the usual discourse, phenomenological discourse and deconstructive discourse, we deal with the tension and how it appears in Manouchehr Atashi's poems. In this way, first, by examining verses from classical literature, we explain the desired theoretical foundations, and finally, by constructivist reading, we extract tension and its constructive factors from some of Manouchehr Atashi's poems. In this study, it becomes clear that although at first glance, the elements of a literary work are not related to each other, but are in opposition to each other, but tension can be opposed to the elements in the whole unit and lead to It becomes structured as a whole. Thus, tension as a link between opposites in various forms leads to the configuration and structure of poetry.
Volume 7, Issue 4 (No.4 (Tome 32), (Articles in Persian) 2016)
Abstract
One of the prevalent questions in the realm of Persian sonnet is related to its cohesion. The present article, using Halliday and Hassan's systemic-functional approach to cohesion, tries to analyze and describe the presence of cohesion in Persian sonnet. Henceforth, after using their proposed model in cohesion, defining the principles of non-structural cohesion and differentiating it from the structural cohesion, this article takes on a descriptive approach towards the analysis of a sonnet by Hafiz. Accordingly, this article tries to analyze the ways in which cohesion comes to existence in a sonnet by Hafiz, and at the same time provide the reader with a methodology for analyzing non-structural cohesion in Persian sonnets. However, the author proposes three new-found principles which could be of high importance in such a model, that is, epithet, and figurative connectedness in contiguity axis as well as similarity axis.
Volume 7, Issue 7 (No.7 (Tome 35), (Articles in Persian) 2016)
Abstract
One of the prevalent questions in the realm of Persian sonnet is related to its cohesion. In this respect, using a functional linguistics approach, as well as the model of structural cohesion, the present article is to analyze the thematic structure of a sonnet by Hafiz. The aim of the present article is therefore to discuss the textual structure of a Persian sonnet through analyzing the thematic structure of the clause and the organization of its internal elements. Accordingly, a brief explanation about meta-functions is firstly provided, and afterwards the organization of the thematic structure in Persian language, along with the analysis of marked and unmarked types of Theme-Rheme is discussed. Next, using a descriptive-analytic approach in analyzing the structural cohesion, a poem by Hafiz is accordingly described. This analysis not only reveals some important points about the structural cohesion of the sonnet and its thematic structure, but also explains some of the poet's latent beliefs. In the end, it is claimed that on the basis of such an approach, one can analyze the cohesion of Hafiz's other sonnets according to the organization of Theme-Rheme.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 8, Issue 31 (Fall 2015)
Volume 8, Issue 31 (Fall 2015)
Abstract
Yuri Lotman, inspired by de Saussure and Hjelmslev, and following the structural methodology has put forward some innovative ideas so as to analyze the structure of the artistic text. Defining art as the system of systems, Lotman points that any artistic text is a secondary modelling system which is based on the primary model of language. However, artistic texts, compared to natural language, convey more complex information in a smaller amount of space, and consequently have a more complex structure. Hence, this article tries to follow Lotman's theoretical source of thought, and at the same time to analyze his argumentation in this regard. In this way it is revealed that in any artistic text, all forms gave the potentiality of being semanticized, i.e. coming up to a higher level of significance. Accordingly, in artistic texts more than one system is active at a time; as a result the tension and confrontation between these systems leads to the reinforcement and intensification of the text's significance. In the end, the author introduces a new, though little, point in the field of poetic semiotics by the name of semantic ordering or the plشy of signifieds.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 9, Issue 33 (Spring 2016)
Volume 9, Issue 33 (Spring 2016)
Abstract
Semiotic Square, as a model trying to analyze and explain the foundation of signification, was firstly developed by Greimas. This model is the logical outcome of the development of binary oppositions, and is based on the primary structure of signification. It was first used in the structural analysis of narratives. However, Greimas, Rastier and some other members of Paris school applied it in the field of semiotics of poetry, as well. Nevertheless, researches using this model in the field of Persian literature are mainly concerned with its application in the structural analysis of either prose or verse narratives, and as a consequence, there is no comprehensive research which analyses the process of signification in poetry according to this model. Hence, after providing the basic assumptions of semiotic model, the present article tries to apply it in a semiotic reading of poetry. Therefore, at first the basic components of semiotic square and their combination methods is explained and afterwards the internal organization of the components of a poem by Attar, Mowlavi, and Hafiz is respectively analyzed. Such a research not only provides the possibility of the analysis of the poem's structure, and brings forth some of its latent perspectives, but also offers a reader-oriented model which indicates how a potent reader recognize and categorize the semantic components of the poem so as to arrive at a better understanding.
Volume 10, Issue 1 (No. 1 (Tome 49), (Articles in Persian) 2019)
Abstract
Rouzbahan Baghli is one of the major figures of 6th century who has his own particular mystic language. His language shows a set of particular features like abstractness. The present article has taken into account the semiotic square theoretical framework in order to analyze his language as well as to yield a better understanding of his mystic experience. Accordingly, having taken into consideration his mystic language, the properties of his language will be analyzed in the light of semiotic square. This study reveals that among the current oppositions like contradiction, contrast and entailment, Rouzbahan’s language incline towards contrast. This is due to the fact that Rouzbehan generally speaks about major existential categories, which are completely contradictory in two poles. Thus, whenever he talks about his experiences, he sometimes intermingles the binary oppositions in a complex meta-term. As a result, he sometimes collects these binary categories and puts them together to create a "compound" term. Sometimes he rejects both categories and creates a "neutral" frequency, and sometimes a "positive indicator" by deleting both. Other meta-terms like neutral, complex, positive deixis, and nameless are the dominant indicators of his abstract language.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 10, Issue 38 (Summer 2017)
Volume 10, Issue 38 (Summer 2017)
Abstract
During his second career, Roland Barthes concentrates mainly on the criticism of the Evident. He believes what pretends to be natural, universal and evident is in fact an outcome of a naturalization process; a process through which the ideological is finally configured as the Evident. Accordingly, the final result of the naturalization process, according to Barthes is a Doxa which embodies the Evident. Therefore, on his way to criticize the Evident and also reveal the ideological implications of Doxa, Barthes proposes Paradox as the antithesis of Doxa. Paradox is actually a weapon against the intrigues of language, on the basis of which it would be possible to experience a different reading of the text. However, Barthes never provides a clear-cut explanation of the semiotic mechanism of Doxa and Paradox. As a result, it may be assumed that Barthes' theoretical reorientation involves with the denial of his former doctrines regarding sign. This article, then, tries not only to analyze the semiotic functions of Doxa and Paradox, but also explain the logical outcome of this viewpoint. It will be finally revealed that Barthes' second approach is basically influenced by the criticism of the hierarchical relationship between connotative and denotative meanings.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 14, Issue 56 (Winter 2021)
Volume 14, Issue 56 (Winter 2021)
Abstract
Introducing narrative as a possible world, while emphasizing its self-sufficiency, the present study aims to provide an alternative to those theories that consider narrative as a reflection of the state of the affairs in the real world. Accordingly, having discussied the self-sufficiency of narrative configured through its internal forces, the research explores the subject of contextualism from a macro-cultural, phenomenological, and linguistic point of view. This research methodologically uses a combination of phenomenological and linguistic approaches in the study of literary context to apply the principles of the possible literary world in the light of topics such as symbolic forms, wholeness, semantic heterogeneity, probable impossibility, internal logic of the work and semiotic reading. In this study, it is found that in the semantics of the possible literary world, the consistency theory of truth is more effective than the coherency theory of truth, and narrative, while suspending the referential function of the text, is better understood via its internal orderings.
- Introduction
In the mimetic reading of literary works, an attempt is always made to find a reasonable relationship between the narrative and the outside world. Accordingly, most thinkers, working in the field of literature and history, try to investigate the historical origins and real contexts of literary works and to reveal the objective considerations from which the narrative is thought to have originated. That is why, narrative¸ according to such a view, is regarded as a mirror in front of the nature or the world, and therefore the identity of fictional characters, images, events and narrative situations are reduced to a shadow, or else a copy for which one could find a corresponding or equivalent phenomenon in the world.
For this reason, historical events, personalities, and the state of affairs in the outside world, are supposed to be the source or foundation on which the narrative is constructed and represented. Since at the core of this theory lies the principle of reference, and the truth or falsity of propositions depends on the conformity of such representations with the particular affairs of the world, the historical reading of the narrative is more dominant. In this approach every phenomenon in the narrative is interpreted to be a reflection of an invulnerable reality. Thus, such an approach not only negates the independence and self-sufficiency of the narrative, but also reduces it to the level of history. But that is not all. Indeed, sometimes, there is an allegorical approach which seems to be more quasi-philosophical than the mimetic reading. From this perspective, narrative as a special literary world is regarded as a place for the re-presentation or re-emergence of some universal phenomena. In fact, when it is not possible to identify a particular event or real character behind the representations of a narrative, the reader, researcher, or the literary critic shifts from a mimetic to an interpretive or allegorical approach. Accordingly, fictional characters or events acquire their originality not by reference to specific historical phenomena, but by reference to universal themes.
In this way, "fictional particular represents actual universal" (Doležel, 1988: 477). Such a view leads to the formation of a kind of literary typology according to which a particular phenomenon is considered to be correspondent to universal affairs. In this way, in a narrative, characters are regarded to be equivalent to different social types, character traits are equivalent to general psychological characteristics, and specific or partial situations or events are equivalent to general and universal historical situations. Thus, from this perspective, the narrative contains abstract categories that are manifested in the guise of fictional events and characters. For this reason, in the allegorical reading of a work, it seems necessary to rely to elevate the narrative facts to the level of general affairs on the basis of an interpretive or allegorical approach.
In other words, the components, present in the narrative, are distanced from their narrative identity in the allegorical approach. These elements are, instead, reformulated as sociological, moral, or psychological types or generalities. Obviously, such an approach deprives the narrative of its special charms due to the exclusion of the particular. For this reason, in what follows, relying on the principle of self-sufficiency of the work, I try to provide an approach to reading narratives, which not only maintains the individuality of the work, but do not reduce the narrative to real or allegorical affairs, as well. According to such a view, narrative as a possible world is self-sufficient and has a real identity, and has therefore the power to be configured through its own regulative rules. Therefore, in this research, it is assumed that the validity or cogency of the characters and events in the narrative is guaranteed by its internal system. Accordingly, in the following, while rethinking the concepts of "self-sufficiency" and "contextualism" of the narrative, and emphasizing the independence of the work, I would try to elucidate and highlight the axioms of the narrative semantic.
For this reason, historical events, personalities, and the state of affairs in the outside world, are supposed to be the source or foundation on which the narrative is constructed and represented. Since at the core of this theory lies the principle of reference, and the truth or falsity of propositions depends on the conformity of such representations with the particular affairs of the world, the historical reading of the narrative is more dominant. In this approach every phenomenon in the narrative is interpreted to be a reflection of an invulnerable reality. Thus, such an approach not only negates the independence and self-sufficiency of the narrative, but also reduces it to the level of history. But that is not all. Indeed, sometimes, there is an allegorical approach which seems to be more quasi-philosophical than the mimetic reading. From this perspective, narrative as a special literary world is regarded as a place for the re-presentation or re-emergence of some universal phenomena. In fact, when it is not possible to identify a particular event or real character behind the representations of a narrative, the reader, researcher, or the literary critic shifts from a mimetic to an interpretive or allegorical approach. Accordingly, fictional characters or events acquire their originality not by reference to specific historical phenomena, but by reference to universal themes.
In this way, "fictional particular represents actual universal" (Doležel, 1988: 477). Such a view leads to the formation of a kind of literary typology according to which a particular phenomenon is considered to be correspondent to universal affairs. In this way, in a narrative, characters are regarded to be equivalent to different social types, character traits are equivalent to general psychological characteristics, and specific or partial situations or events are equivalent to general and universal historical situations. Thus, from this perspective, the narrative contains abstract categories that are manifested in the guise of fictional events and characters. For this reason, in the allegorical reading of a work, it seems necessary to rely to elevate the narrative facts to the level of general affairs on the basis of an interpretive or allegorical approach.
In other words, the components, present in the narrative, are distanced from their narrative identity in the allegorical approach. These elements are, instead, reformulated as sociological, moral, or psychological types or generalities. Obviously, such an approach deprives the narrative of its special charms due to the exclusion of the particular. For this reason, in what follows, relying on the principle of self-sufficiency of the work, I try to provide an approach to reading narratives, which not only maintains the individuality of the work, but do not reduce the narrative to real or allegorical affairs, as well. According to such a view, narrative as a possible world is self-sufficient and has a real identity, and has therefore the power to be configured through its own regulative rules. Therefore, in this research, it is assumed that the validity or cogency of the characters and events in the narrative is guaranteed by its internal system. Accordingly, in the following, while rethinking the concepts of "self-sufficiency" and "contextualism" of the narrative, and emphasizing the independence of the work, I would try to elucidate and highlight the axioms of the narrative semantic.
- Review of Literature
In fact, shortly after Kripke reinterpreted Leibniz's classical concept of possible worlds in a formal logical system, the study of literature and the analysis of the fictional world from the perspective of possible worlds have been prevalent since 1970s. In this regard, Pavel (1975), as a beginner, tries to clarify the relationship between narrative and the real world. He critiques the tendency to analyse literary works in the light of the referential function due to its reducing the art work to the mere reflection of the outside world. Instead, he proposes a specific ontology by which the self-sufficiency of literary works is guaranteed, as well. Another research which is of high significance especially for its explanatory power and also its coherent reasoning is that of Doležel (1988). The research is to explain the nature of the narrative and its related ontology. In this study, Doležel emphasizes that the origin of representation is the author himself. He believes that fictional characters are real in a hypothetical world before the author turns to them, and that the creator of the work has not necessarily experienced examples of them in the real world. He avows that the fiction writer creates his characters in exactly the same way as the historian constructs historical characters, with this difference that the writer is the historian of the realms of fiction. I do not quite agree with the outcomes of this research because of its reduction of the ontology of the possible world to the reception theory, though I may refer to some of his findings while I give my own suggestions. In any case, Doležel considers the fictional world to be something different from the real world, emphasizing that fictional characters are possible and not real. However, the position of Wolterstorff (1988) is in opposition to this principle. He provides the reader with some reasons to show how believing in non-existent, but probable characters, whose being is manifested only by the narrative, is objectionable. Another research which is of high importance in terms of its historical aspects of the theory and also its explanatory power is that of Ronen (1994). In a comprehensive study, Ronen emphasizes that employing philosophical teachings about the possible world could be useful in literary theory due to the similarities between the two. While examining the historical course of the theory of possible worlds, he explains its rules and finally applies the teachings of this field in the field of narration. There are a number of notable criticisms of Ronen, including Van Peer (1996), who addresses one of the key terms he uses and argues that asserting the fictional elements to be non-real is exactly in contrast with what the possible world theory is likely to prove. In a book review, Earnshaw (1997) also shows that taking a pragmatic viewpoint, Ronen ultimately leaves it up to the reader to determine the possibility or probability of fictional characters, and he thus ignores the main issue, i.e. the real state of affairs.
3. Methodology
In any case, the present study is an original research which is the outcome of my own personal reflections and, except in one or two cases where I have taken some terms from Doležel research, I am not indebted to any research in terms of my theoretical framework.
4. Results
The present study shows that regarding the literary world as a possible world implies the self-sufficiency of the work, and therefore the difference between a literary work and, say, a historical work, is that internal forces play an important role in its construction. This, in itself, entails the suspension of the referential function of the language. In this way, the particular signification of a literary work is not achieved by its correspondence to the outside world, but generally by the internal order of the work. For this reason, explaining the mechanism of truth and falsity of propositions in a possible literary world shows greater efficiency when it is based on the consistency theory of truth. Examining the axioms of the possible literary world shows that the self-sufficiency of a literary work is not only in line with contextualism in its phenomenological and linguistic sense, but also reveals some of the most important features of this world. For example, the form of thought in the possible literary world, although it has similarities with scientific thought, but as long as the work tends towards self-sufficiency, the form of thought is based on different perceptions of concepts such as objectivity, time, place and causality. In terms of semantic as well as ontological integrity, the possible literary world expands along a continuum, in which the tendency for wholeness in the work is maximal in one end and minimal on the other. What makes the possible literary world different from the real word is the fact that unlike the real world, in which imperfection is considered as an existential or semantic defect, in the literary world, imperfection is considered as an aesthetic feature. This is firstly because a part or parts of the identity of phenomena and characters are existentially revealed in such a world, which allows the generation of prototypical or ideal examples, and on the other hand, from the point of view of perception theory, imperfection itself acts as a factor which increases the range of a reader's collaboration in the recreation of the final meaning and thus makes the meaning more plural and fluid. This issue justifies the semantic and ontological heterogeneity, the presence of phenomena and the possible characters in the possible literary world. In fact, as long as the intellectual, linguistic or stylistic system of the author and the work act as a macro-structure which deprives the subject of his/her agency, the literary tradition acts as a channel that leads to the creation of similar formal and thematic works, but the literary world due to its lack of adherence to homogeneity becomes dynamic. This dynamism is basically the result of the absorption of paradox in the literary system. Obviously, the presence of paradox in the literary world leads to a constant dialectical becoming. Accordingly, paradox, as an estrange object, enters the system, upsets it, and eventually becomes a part of it. Thus, although the literary tradition entails fixation and stagnation, the literary world is always elusive due to the lack of adherence to ontological or semantic similarity. In the end, it became clear that when we examine the literary world from the perspective of the theory of reception, understanding the cohesion and coherence of the text and thus the textual significance of the work entails superseding the mimetic reading- which is common to historical and scientific texts- and adapting a semiotic reading. Such a reading focuses on those signs that gain their value through ungrammaticality and non-coexistence with the other components of the literary work.
3. Methodology
In any case, the present study is an original research which is the outcome of my own personal reflections and, except in one or two cases where I have taken some terms from Doležel research, I am not indebted to any research in terms of my theoretical framework.
4. Results
The present study shows that regarding the literary world as a possible world implies the self-sufficiency of the work, and therefore the difference between a literary work and, say, a historical work, is that internal forces play an important role in its construction. This, in itself, entails the suspension of the referential function of the language. In this way, the particular signification of a literary work is not achieved by its correspondence to the outside world, but generally by the internal order of the work. For this reason, explaining the mechanism of truth and falsity of propositions in a possible literary world shows greater efficiency when it is based on the consistency theory of truth. Examining the axioms of the possible literary world shows that the self-sufficiency of a literary work is not only in line with contextualism in its phenomenological and linguistic sense, but also reveals some of the most important features of this world. For example, the form of thought in the possible literary world, although it has similarities with scientific thought, but as long as the work tends towards self-sufficiency, the form of thought is based on different perceptions of concepts such as objectivity, time, place and causality. In terms of semantic as well as ontological integrity, the possible literary world expands along a continuum, in which the tendency for wholeness in the work is maximal in one end and minimal on the other. What makes the possible literary world different from the real word is the fact that unlike the real world, in which imperfection is considered as an existential or semantic defect, in the literary world, imperfection is considered as an aesthetic feature. This is firstly because a part or parts of the identity of phenomena and characters are existentially revealed in such a world, which allows the generation of prototypical or ideal examples, and on the other hand, from the point of view of perception theory, imperfection itself acts as a factor which increases the range of a reader's collaboration in the recreation of the final meaning and thus makes the meaning more plural and fluid. This issue justifies the semantic and ontological heterogeneity, the presence of phenomena and the possible characters in the possible literary world. In fact, as long as the intellectual, linguistic or stylistic system of the author and the work act as a macro-structure which deprives the subject of his/her agency, the literary tradition acts as a channel that leads to the creation of similar formal and thematic works, but the literary world due to its lack of adherence to homogeneity becomes dynamic. This dynamism is basically the result of the absorption of paradox in the literary system. Obviously, the presence of paradox in the literary world leads to a constant dialectical becoming. Accordingly, paradox, as an estrange object, enters the system, upsets it, and eventually becomes a part of it. Thus, although the literary tradition entails fixation and stagnation, the literary world is always elusive due to the lack of adherence to ontological or semantic similarity. In the end, it became clear that when we examine the literary world from the perspective of the theory of reception, understanding the cohesion and coherence of the text and thus the textual significance of the work entails superseding the mimetic reading- which is common to historical and scientific texts- and adapting a semiotic reading. Such a reading focuses on those signs that gain their value through ungrammaticality and non-coexistence with the other components of the literary work.
Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 15, Issue 58 (Summer 2022)
Volume 15, Issue 58 (Summer 2022)
Abstract
Mimesis, as one of the fundamental views on the nature of art and literature, has always been a dominant theory in the philosophy of art from ancient Greece to the eighteenth century. In the contemporary period, thinkers such as Auerbach, Gerard, and followers of the Chicago School - each from a particular perspective - have given a new reading of it. However, mimesis is essentially an anti-formalist theory that focuses on the state of affairs in the real world due to its adherence to the principle of reference. Accordingly, the theory of imitation implies the examination of the truth and falsity of works of art based on the principle of conformity and attention to the referential function of language. This is why mimesis in Plato's system of thought leads to his anti-artistic stance. However, the present study has emerged from the heart of the tradition of imitation in the philosophy of art. Relying on the principles of the theory of mimesis, it has tried to examine the origins of this view and make arguments according to which mimesis, in case it addresses the form and not the subject of mimesis, has the potential to become, in a new reading, an introduction to formalist theory and not necessarily an alternative or competing theory. In this research, it becomes clear that mimesis in its specific meaning, in the first place, requires the abstraction of the form of affairs. In the second place, the abstracted form is reconfigured and takes on a new form based on the artistic matter (which, in verbal art, is language and its signs). In this way, the truth and falsity of the work of art in this case is possible not by referring the extra-text or the outside world but by examining the internal system of the work. This entails the self-sufficiency of the work of art, which is one of the fundamental traits of formalism.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Mimesis is one of the fundamental theories in the philosophy of art and literature, under which the nature and essence of art is discussed. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of the role of mimesis and its importance in explaining the mechanism of the work of art, we first briefly mention those key questions that are addressed under the common views on the philosophy of art, and then the issues that we believe are related to the theory of mimesis. We are then detremined to yield each question a suitable answer.
The fundamental viewpoints about the philosophy of art and literature can be divided into four groups (cf. Abrams, 1953: 3-46): a. The first viewpoint focuses on the "what" of the work of art and basically deals with the issue of representation. According to this view, art is like a mirror that represents the outside world; But the problem is, which category of phenomena, actions, state of affairs or human deeds is going to be represented and through what means. The theory of mimesis is placed under this viewpoint. b) The second point of view focuses on the "how" of the creation of the work of art and basically deals with those artistic arrangements that transform the raw material of art into a desirable and ideal form of art. Formalism, and new criticism can be examined under this section. c) The third point of view is directed towards the creator of the art work or to "who" is the author of the work. From this perspective, the social, historical and psychological contexts of the author are important. It is obvious that examining the position of the artist or the author in order to examine the work is one of the most important concerns of such viewpoints. The subject of poesis is examined under this point of view. d) The fourth point of view focuses on the purpose of the work of art and answers the question "why". This point of view generally pays attention to the audience of art and consequently the moral, rhetorical and telological purposes of the work of art are examined under this viewpoint. In this way, according to the first point of view, in case the subject of art or literature is limited to the state of affairs in the world, it seems that documentary cinema, photography, historiography, biography and realist or naturalist novels are more original in comparison with other genres and literary types. However, the question still remains whether the theory of mimesis is limited to these aesthetic boundaries and if it could examine all literary and artistic genres from this static point of view, or it is bound to change in a way that it does not neglect any longer other aspects related to the nature and value of art. In the same way, if a literary theory claims that the literary work is aimed at the representation of the outside world, the question still remains that through what means/devices the representation itself is possible. Accordingly, is it necessart that the concept of the outside world, the state of affairs and nature be expanded in such a way that the theory of mimesis includes all forms of art, or should the conceptual scope of mimesis be limited in such a way that those forms of arts just due to their not being included under the concept of mimesis are automatically removed from the ideal concept of art, or else interpreted as non-original works. In order to answer these questions, the present research, while paying attention to the theoretical considerations about the theory of mimesis, in the first stage analyzes the issue of reference and the principle of correspondence in works of art to clarify whether non-mimetic representation is necessarily non-referential or is it dependent on it. For this reason, after differentiating mimesis into two general and specific types, we argue how the form of mimesis makes the work of art be dependent upon the referential theory while simultaneously evade it. As a result, the present research finally reveals the arrangements through which the form of mimesis, as a non-semantic layer, has a potential to be semanticized.
Results: Examining the theory of mimesis from the perspective of the form and not the subject of mimesis reveals that despite the common idea about "mimesis in its general sense" according to which mimesis is based on the representation of the outside world, the scrutiny of how mimesis works through special artistic means and arrangements revelas that in " mimesis in its specific sense" the principle of reference is suspended. Based on the principle of reference, the representation of the outside world requires paying attention to the examplars, the state of affairs and the world as a whole. However, this study shows that mimesis in a specific sense not only suspends the principle of reference, but also expands the concept of the outside world to the concept of the possible world. Therefore, in case there is a reference in the context of art, it is considered as art’s secondary purpose. Indeed, such a reference is not necessarily directed to the outside world in its general sense, but operates in a wider realm of possible worlds. According to such a reading, which is the result of the writer's reflections, mimesis theory- in the sense that we apply- adheres to one principle in order to represent the world, i.e. mimesis entails the reflection of the state of affairs. But reflecting the state of affairs, according to our arguments in this research, can be done in two ways; One by paying attention to the content of mimesis and the other by paying attention to the form of mimesis. The content of mimesis is related to determining the truth and falsity of propsitions. Their truth and falsity can thus be checked by referring to the possible world. Of course, we note that the conditions of truth and falsity in possible worlds are variable, and in fact, each possible world imposes its own conditions on the truth and falsity of propsitions. Above all, content mimesis ultimately does not imply the negation of the referability of artistic propositions. On the other hand, the form of mimesis is not necessarily true or false, although it does not fundamentally negate it. This means that when representation is made through specific mimesis, rather than the content of the state of affairs or the subject of the mimesis, it is the logical form or form of affairs that becomes important, so the artist, while paying attention to the state of affairs, which is considered extratextual, abstracts the logical form of the events or situations and takes them in his work. This logical form has the ability to reproduce a new situation with the specific raw materials of the work of art, which on the one hand is symmetrical - and not necessarily compatible - with the outside world, and on the other hand has its own special logic due to the dominance of the work's internal system. It is worth noting that the internal system of art provides the possibility that the non-semantic layers of the work, which are non-referential, are semanticized, and in this way their referentiality would reappear in another way. It is obvious that the referential function in this case has a secondary function, and its originality as well as its artistic value depends on its relational value within the system.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Mimesis is one of the fundamental theories in the philosophy of art and literature, under which the nature and essence of art is discussed. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of the role of mimesis and its importance in explaining the mechanism of the work of art, we first briefly mention those key questions that are addressed under the common views on the philosophy of art, and then the issues that we believe are related to the theory of mimesis. We are then detremined to yield each question a suitable answer.
The fundamental viewpoints about the philosophy of art and literature can be divided into four groups (cf. Abrams, 1953: 3-46): a. The first viewpoint focuses on the "what" of the work of art and basically deals with the issue of representation. According to this view, art is like a mirror that represents the outside world; But the problem is, which category of phenomena, actions, state of affairs or human deeds is going to be represented and through what means. The theory of mimesis is placed under this viewpoint. b) The second point of view focuses on the "how" of the creation of the work of art and basically deals with those artistic arrangements that transform the raw material of art into a desirable and ideal form of art. Formalism, and new criticism can be examined under this section. c) The third point of view is directed towards the creator of the art work or to "who" is the author of the work. From this perspective, the social, historical and psychological contexts of the author are important. It is obvious that examining the position of the artist or the author in order to examine the work is one of the most important concerns of such viewpoints. The subject of poesis is examined under this point of view. d) The fourth point of view focuses on the purpose of the work of art and answers the question "why". This point of view generally pays attention to the audience of art and consequently the moral, rhetorical and telological purposes of the work of art are examined under this viewpoint. In this way, according to the first point of view, in case the subject of art or literature is limited to the state of affairs in the world, it seems that documentary cinema, photography, historiography, biography and realist or naturalist novels are more original in comparison with other genres and literary types. However, the question still remains whether the theory of mimesis is limited to these aesthetic boundaries and if it could examine all literary and artistic genres from this static point of view, or it is bound to change in a way that it does not neglect any longer other aspects related to the nature and value of art. In the same way, if a literary theory claims that the literary work is aimed at the representation of the outside world, the question still remains that through what means/devices the representation itself is possible. Accordingly, is it necessart that the concept of the outside world, the state of affairs and nature be expanded in such a way that the theory of mimesis includes all forms of art, or should the conceptual scope of mimesis be limited in such a way that those forms of arts just due to their not being included under the concept of mimesis are automatically removed from the ideal concept of art, or else interpreted as non-original works. In order to answer these questions, the present research, while paying attention to the theoretical considerations about the theory of mimesis, in the first stage analyzes the issue of reference and the principle of correspondence in works of art to clarify whether non-mimetic representation is necessarily non-referential or is it dependent on it. For this reason, after differentiating mimesis into two general and specific types, we argue how the form of mimesis makes the work of art be dependent upon the referential theory while simultaneously evade it. As a result, the present research finally reveals the arrangements through which the form of mimesis, as a non-semantic layer, has a potential to be semanticized.
Results: Examining the theory of mimesis from the perspective of the form and not the subject of mimesis reveals that despite the common idea about "mimesis in its general sense" according to which mimesis is based on the representation of the outside world, the scrutiny of how mimesis works through special artistic means and arrangements revelas that in " mimesis in its specific sense" the principle of reference is suspended. Based on the principle of reference, the representation of the outside world requires paying attention to the examplars, the state of affairs and the world as a whole. However, this study shows that mimesis in a specific sense not only suspends the principle of reference, but also expands the concept of the outside world to the concept of the possible world. Therefore, in case there is a reference in the context of art, it is considered as art’s secondary purpose. Indeed, such a reference is not necessarily directed to the outside world in its general sense, but operates in a wider realm of possible worlds. According to such a reading, which is the result of the writer's reflections, mimesis theory- in the sense that we apply- adheres to one principle in order to represent the world, i.e. mimesis entails the reflection of the state of affairs. But reflecting the state of affairs, according to our arguments in this research, can be done in two ways; One by paying attention to the content of mimesis and the other by paying attention to the form of mimesis. The content of mimesis is related to determining the truth and falsity of propsitions. Their truth and falsity can thus be checked by referring to the possible world. Of course, we note that the conditions of truth and falsity in possible worlds are variable, and in fact, each possible world imposes its own conditions on the truth and falsity of propsitions. Above all, content mimesis ultimately does not imply the negation of the referability of artistic propositions. On the other hand, the form of mimesis is not necessarily true or false, although it does not fundamentally negate it. This means that when representation is made through specific mimesis, rather than the content of the state of affairs or the subject of the mimesis, it is the logical form or form of affairs that becomes important, so the artist, while paying attention to the state of affairs, which is considered extratextual, abstracts the logical form of the events or situations and takes them in his work. This logical form has the ability to reproduce a new situation with the specific raw materials of the work of art, which on the one hand is symmetrical - and not necessarily compatible - with the outside world, and on the other hand has its own special logic due to the dominance of the work's internal system. It is worth noting that the internal system of art provides the possibility that the non-semantic layers of the work, which are non-referential, are semanticized, and in this way their referentiality would reappear in another way. It is obvious that the referential function in this case has a secondary function, and its originality as well as its artistic value depends on its relational value within the system.
Marjan Hosseinpoor Jeerhandeh, Omid Zakerikish, Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 16, Issue 61 (Spring 2023)
Volume 16, Issue 61 (Spring 2023)
Abstract
Influenced by the interpretive attitudes of the Middle Ages and committed to the teachings of New Criticism, Frye, drawing on structuralist methodology, developed innovative ideas for analyzing the structure of a literary work. In his literary poetics, he assumes that the meaning of a literary work consists of elements and components that can be determined by focusing on mode, symbol, archetype, and genre. In such a framework, he considers the components of ethos, mythos, and dianoia as the basic elements that make up meaning. Meanwhile, however, it seems that Ethos has not been adequately addressed. In this essay, we first attempt to answer why ethos seems to be neglected in his ethical critique, which is necessarily based on ethos, through an analysis of the theoretical implications and consequences of what Frye holds. In what follows, along with the methodological explanation of Frye's analysis, we attempt to show how the seemingly neglected ethos reappears in Frye's theoretical framework. In the end, it turns out that ethos is part of Frye's theoretical framework not because of methodological considerations, but because of teleological considerations.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Northrop Frye (1912-1991) is one of the literary theorists of the 20th century. He was familiar with the medieval interpretations of the Bible on the one hand and with the theories of the New Criticists on the other, and saw a significant symmetry between the Bible on the one hand and literature on the other. According to the medieval interpretations of the Bible, commentators considered the meaning of the text to be multi-layered, revealing itself at first in superficial levels, but the knowledgeable reader should go beyond these levels to the inner layers of the text where the true meaning rests. By distancing themselves from what appeared to be historical, psychoanalytical, biographical criticism and all questions outside the structure of the text, the New Critics sought systematic criticism based on the text, but "they treated the text as an inanimate object" (Algooneh, 2017: 197), which for Frye was meaningless "because critical objectivity basically blocks the way to pure literary experience." The proponents of the new criticism considered the work with the "close reading" as a single phenomenon, and for the literary criticism, they considered the analysis of several literary works, while in Frye's system, they invoke qualities and elements behind the literature (see Frye, 1957: 17), and only by recognizing these qualities and elements, the literature becomes meaningful. On this basis, Frye considers literary works not individually, but in a macro-level and in the form of "an order of words" (Ibid) which, despite their plurality, is manifested in a single perspective. From here, Frye distances himself from the proponents of the new criticism, whose main focus is on individual texts and stylistics, and concentrates on typology and literary genre. This is because stylistics focuses more on individuality, while genre focuses on the aesthetic side of literature and a macro-level view that "considers the art of literature not as a value phenomenon but as a technical phenomenon, as a collection of procedures" (Marie Schiffer, 2013: 65). As long as he "pays attention to the close and critical reading of the works," he is aligned with the New Criticists, but since the New Criticists evaluate the works and "are more aware of the framework of hermeneutics and literary criticism than the establishment of poetics" (Ibid, 66), he moves in a different direction from them. Thus, in his discussion with the members of the New Criticism, Frye takes the position that what they see in detail, he connects in the structure of literature as an autonomous whole. In line with this division on the question of type or genre, and in contrast to the question of style, and also to achieve the ideal of a poetic design that is comprehensive and includes all valid criticism, he divides four categories of mood, symbol, archetype, and genre in his book "Anatomy of Criticism," under the separate four articles of historical criticism, ethical criticism, archetypal criticism, and rhetorical criticism. He, who deals with "Ethical Criticism" in the second article of the book by promising that literature consists of interwoven stages and the work draws its totality from this interwovenness of stages, distinguishes between mythos, ethos, and dianoia (see Frye, 1998: 93). But despite the fact that he distinguishes these three elements at each stage and also the special role he assigns to each of them, he consciously or unconsciously neglects ethos in the last analysis.
Ethos, as a fundamental element and component that constitutes the meaning of the text, has no coherence according to Frye. In defining ethos, he says: "The text or the internal social context of a literary work, in fiction-oriented literature includes characterization and context, and in theme-oriented literature it includes the relationship between the author and the reader of the work." (Frye, 1998: 428) While he distinguishes two types of fiction literature and issue-oriented literature here, he considers ethos as both character in literature and the relationship between author and audience. Elsewhere (cf. Frye, 1998: 93), he considers ethos as one of the three fundamental pillars of the text that, together with mythos and dianoia, make the work meaningful. Even though Frye considers these three elements as internal features, he abandons ethos completely and implicitly in the further course of his analysis, leaving it aside, instead of treating it as a method, he notes ethos as an end. On this basis, Frye's ethical critique does not adhere to it, despite its promise of internal immanence, and this critique ultimately focuses on telos. This telos disappears, first, in the liberal purpose and, second, in the objectives influenced by reader-oriented ideas. Although critics in the world have made serious criticisms of Frye's theories, Culler, for example, in "Structuralist Poetics, considers him an interpreter who does not adhere to mere structure (cf. Culler, 2019: 169 and 192), while Lentricia in the book "After New Criticism" and René Wellek in "The History of New Criticism" (cf. Wellek, 2005: 238) argue that all literature is linked to myth. Although some of these criticisms are acceptable and some parts of Frye’s theorizing have gaps, he can be seen to have made an effort to complete them in his later works, but the way Frye uses to achieve meaning through different layers in a particular verbal context is worth reflecting on.
Nevertheless, because of the difficult and complex prose that Frye has used in his book Anatomy of Criticism and because of its theoretical complexity, Frye has received less attention than it should. With this in mind, in the following essay we will attempt to elucidate Frye's theory of classification of symbols and redefine their constituent parts. In doing so, we will rely on an analysis of the theoretical implications and consequences of what Frye follows and attempt to provide an adequate answer to these questions: First, why is ethos omitted from ethical criticism based on ethos? Second, having failed to adhere to what Frye promised at the beginning of the article, where does this discarded ethos now appear?
Review of Literature
Although Frye is considered one of the most influential thinkers in the field of criticism and literary theory of the 20th century, the gap in research that independently analyzes his theoretical framework is quite striking. There are few studies that have critiqued his theoretical foundations, and most of the research conducted has applied Frye's archetypal theory to mythological stories. Ahmadi and Kazempour (2022) examined the myth of Rostam and Sohrǎb in a study using a descriptive-analytical method based on Frye's archetype theory. Asadi and Maghouli (2021) also studied the symbols and archetypes in the paintings of "Shahnameh Shamlu" based on Frye's archetype theory and applied it to Frye's cycles of romance, comedy and tragedy. Maarifvand and Fuladi (2018) analyzed the story of Siavash based on Frye's theory of "tragedy myth." In one article, Algooneh (2016) analyzed the theoretical basis of Frye's classification of symbols and his influence, and in another article, he analyzed the internal mechanism of Dianoia considering Frye's theoretical origins. In this research he examined the connection of mythical dianoia with hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic aspects. Nǎmvarmotlaq (2013) has dealt with Frye's mythology. The first part of the book deals with Frye's life and his mythological criticism, and the second part deals with the practical application of Frye's view in reading myths. In addition, the same author (2012) published a work entitled Introduction to Mythology: Theories and Applications, in which he examined Frye's views on mythological criticism. Haj Nowrouzi (2012), in order to examine the semantic and archetypal images in the story of Siavash based on Frye's theories, first examined this imagery in the literary tradition and then examined the mythological patterns of this work. Anooše (2006) has explained the relationship between Cassirer's ideas and beliefs and Frye's views in the field of myth using the descriptive-analytical method. In another study (2003), this author examined Frye's literary approach in relation to early literary rituals and myths. Based on Jung and Frye's theory, Sam Khaniaini and Malekpaiin (2013) analyzed the myth of the story of the lion and the cow in Kalila and Demeneh. Despite the valid research that has been conducted so far on Frye's views, the theoretical analysis of his opinions, and the application of his theoretical models in reading literature, no research has been found that addresses the theoretical implications and consequences of neglecting ethos. For this reason, the present study sought to examine the position and role of ethos in Frye's theoretical framework, in addition to an analysis of Frye's symbol theory and his literary poetics terminology.
Methodology
The present study is an original research which is the outcome of our own personal reflections and, except in one or two cases where we have taken some terms from Frye’s research, we are not indebted to any research in terms of our theoretical framework.
Results
As can be seen from the explanation of Frye's theory, although he introduces Ethos as one of the three basic pillars of each stage, the distinction of Ethos alongside Mythos and Dianoia will not be fulfilled. In the formal stage, for example, he considers mythos as imitating a generic action and dianoia as imitating a generic thought. Right here, where we expect the distinction and the role of ethos, ethos does not appear at all as a component with a methodological index in Frye’s taxonomy. Thus, contrary to our expectations, the reader learns at the end of the book's second article that the promised ethos is not an essential component, but the ideal critic/reader who is to become the third pillar of each stage through the mythos and dianoia. On the other hand, as we approach the anagogic stage, it becomes increasingly clear that the ethos comprises that single word which in its various manifestations is both God, Christ, Wine, and Lamb (cf. K. Frye, 1377: 154). Although even this characterizing recognition of ethos was not explicitly distinguished in the later stages of the classification of symbols. Moreover, it is necessary to examine the question in what form and with what conceptual transformation Frye uses ethos as a fundamental component after he leaves it. It seems that Frye did not use its fundamental component as a method. But in terms of purpose, he has embedded ethos in "ethical" criticism, and in this way he casts it on the ideal reader on the one hand and on "ethical" criticism on the other. He believes that culture is one of the productive forces of man and "the ruling classes have exploited it in the past like other productive powers, and it is necessary to revalue it in a better society." But since this ideal society exists in the future, the value of culture is based on its revolutionary efficiency." (Frye, 1998: 407). Frye believes that when we move from a single work of art to the general concept of art, it is no longer a question of aesthetics, but a journey to the moral cause that contributes to the work of civilization. On the basis of this evidence, Frye sees himself as a liberal who opposes the prejudices and favoritism of the New Criticists. On the other hand, he considers literature an important component of education. But all of this is seen not as an internal component, which he promised us at the beginning, but as external and teleological references that are not evident in the text. Finally, Frye's ethical criticism is a "moral" matter in a civilized and cultural sense, but this "morality" is manifested not in method but in goal. This moral goal, thrown out of method, includes free and liberal education on the one hand, and focuses on reader-centered theories on the other. Accordingly, ethos is not evident in Frye's classification theory of symbols in the method, but as a factor in the transformation of the reader into a liberal person who accepts all valid criticisms without prioritizing one over the other.
References
Ahmadi, Z. and M. Kazempour (2022). "Naqd-e Ostoorei-ye Dǎstǎn-e Rostam va Sohrǎb bar asǎs-e Nazariyǎt-e Northrope Frye", in Majale-ye Matnpajoohi-ye Adabi, No. 93, Fall, pp. 285-305.
Algooneh, M. (2016). "Dianoia-ye Ostooreh: Pajoheši dar Sǎhat-e Maqfool-e Nazari-ye ostoorehšenǎsi-ye Northrope Frye". In Majale-ye Naqd va nazariy-ye Adabi, No. 3, Spring and Summer, pp. 32-7.
Algooneh, M. (2016). "Northrop Frye va Radebandi-ye Sambolhǎ". In Naqd-e Adabi, No. 40, Winter, pp. 40-7.
Anooše, S.M. (2005). "Nortrop Frye va Sorat-hâye Azali yâ Kohanolgoo-hâye Adabiyât". the Humanities Journal of Semnân University. No. 8. pp. 6- 59. ]in Persian[
Anooše, S.M. (2007). "Farziyât-e Cassirer darbâre-ye Ostoore va Farhang va Tathirât-e ân bar Nazariyât-e Frye dar Naqd-e Adabi". Pazhoheš-e Zabân-hâye Xareji, Winter. No. 34. pp. 5- 14. ]in Persian[
Asadi, S. and Nadiya M.. (1400). "Šenǎsǎii va Tahlil-e Fosool-e Chahǎrgǎne dar Šǎhnamehnegǎri bar asǎs-e Nazarie-ye mitos-e Northrope Frye". In Faslnameh-ye Elmi-ye Adabiyat-e Erfani va Ostoorehšenaxti, No. 63, Winter, pp. 13-42.
Culler, J. (2019), Botiqay-ye sǎxtǎrgerǎ, translated by Koroš Safavi, Tehrǎn: Minooy-e Xerad publishing house.
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Ford, R. (2000). Northrop Frye on Myth, New York & London: Routledge.
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Lentrichia, F. (2013), Ba’d az Naqd-e Now, translated by Mašiyat Ǎlaei, Tehrǎn Minooy-e Xerad publishing house
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Marie-Šeffer, J. (2014). "Bootiqǎ", Dǎnešname-ye Nazariy-ye Adavbi, Iryana Rima Mackarik, translated by Mohammad Nabavi and Mehran Mohǎjer, Tehrǎn: Ǎgǎh Publishing House.
Nǎmvarmotlaq, B. (2012). Darǎmadi bar Ostoorehšenǎsi: Nazari-yehǎ va Kǎrbordhǎ, Tehrǎn: Soxan Publishing House.
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Masoud Algooneh Juneghani,
Volume 17, Issue 67 (10-2024)
Volume 17, Issue 67 (10-2024)
Abstract
The short story The Lottery written by Shirley Jackson depicts the annual lottery ritual in a small American village. The story ends in a strange and scary manner. This story is aimed at those cultural norms and customs that act as false consciousness, leading individuals to pre-contemplative actions. Actions that occur mostly in the context of social praxis and therefore lack the necessary rationality, because basically, the driving force behind these actions is a blind social will. Based on this, and in response to the question of how "standing in the death row" relates to the lottery and why this ritual persists, the author explains the socio-psychological indicators of the work by employing the mythological model of René Gerard as the general framework of criticism while analyzing and criticizing the present story. In the end, it is clear that the foundation of this story is based on the offering of sacrifice as a ritual matter occurs "prior to symbolic representation". Sacrifice rituals, while representing material realities, organize the internal system of the work.
Extended Abstract
1. Introduction
Shirley Jackson's short story The Lottery is an exploration of tradition, ritual, and the darker side of human nature. This story was first published in 1948 and at the very beginning, it faced a lot of criticism because of the horrible portrayal of cultural norms and customs. Anyway, the events of the story take place in a small village in rural America. This short and strange story finally leaves the reader stunned, prompting questions such as: "What kind of luck is this that the people of the village are so attached to?”; “What is the relationship between what the villagers follow every year in a ritualistic manner, with their ‘standing in the death row’, or with the lottery?”; and “Why is such a deadly ritual basically not abolished?"; indeed, “According to what perception, falling into the death trap is called luck?”
2. Review of Literature
Anggriawan (2013) in a research titled Human Irony in Shirley Jackson's Lottery analyzes The Lottery using Peirce's semiotics to reveal human ironies. Bailey (2014) in a study called Sacred Violence in Shirley Jackson's Lottery, before applying René Gerard's theory on violence, religion, and sacrifice, first briefly examines the range of critical readings. In a joint research, Anoosheh and others (2018) have tried to read and interpret The Lottery in the light of Durkheim's theory. In this review, it is determined that despite the fact that the main character of the story is thought to be brutally killed by his friends and family, as a result of being too integrated into the structure of society, however, he actually committed altruistic suicide. Hakaraia (2019) argues that The Lottery can be read in five contrasting ways, referring to the influence adopted by Jackson from Empson's seven types of ambiguity. Nugraha and others (2020) analyze the main character of The Lottery by applying role-oriented systemic linguistics. Paramitha (2021) emphasizes in his research that the ideologies hidden in the text include social dominance and marginalization through tradition.
3. Methodology
In order to answer the above-mentioned questions, the author has tried to explain some of the socio-psychological indicators of the work while analyzing its underlying mythological framework to make it clear that in the basis of this story, we are dealing with a general pattern based on the sacrifice of the victim. In fact, in the story of The Lottery, the ritual of the sacrifice acts in order "prior to the symbolic representation" and for this reason, the unfolding of the sacrifice, as an objective and real phenomenon, organizes the internal system of the work. Therefore, the ironic situation of the story and the paradoxical logic that governs it originates from a kind of ancient anthropological attitude that, according to many thinkers, does not belong solely to primitive thought. In the following, we will see that the mythological model of René Gerard, a French American thinker, has the ability to analyze and criticize the current story, as a structural model that does not lose its dependence on real and objective history in mythological studies and literary theory.
4. Discussion
René Girard believes that what is mentioned in the Western tradition under the topic of mimesis or imitation is based on the subject's imitation of another; But according to him, desire is not the result of simulations, but actually its cause. This means that the subject's tendency towards the external matter is not due to its intrinsic and internal nature, but rather the desire is directed towards the other rather than towards the object and its possession. In this relationship, the other plays the role of a model or mediator, and therefore, whatever is desirable in his eyes, influences the subject, and therefore the subject's desire turns to it. Therefore, the desire for the object is on the second level and it is the result of such simulations. After proposing the "triangular model of mimetic desire" (cf. Girard, 2000: 33-44), Girard emphasizes that when the model is on par with the subject, or in other words, it is in the same social position with him in terms of type and rank, competition is formed. This competition continues until the subject and the model alternately change their places and are affected by each other. In this way, trying to emulate the other's desire will eventually lead to similarity between the parties; this similarity reaches to the point where it becomes nearly impossible to separate the parties from each other. French-American thinker, René Girard, offers a specific mythological psychoanalytic framework through which Shirley Jackson's Lottery can be analyzed. His theory of mimetic desire for violence, religion, and sacrifice reveals the hidden meanings in the story. Girard believes that all desires are simulations; that is, they come from imitating others. Our desires mirror what we perceive others desiring. In fact, desire consists of three elements: the subject, the model (someone whose desires we imitate), and the object (what we desire).
Girard argues that imitative desire leads to competition and conflict. When desires collide, violence erupts. To restore order, societies often scapegoat an individual or group and blame them for collective problems. Don Quixote is a good example to explain the imitative desire. Influenced by chivalric romances, this character imitates fictional knights. In the same way, the villagers in The Lottery imitate ancient rituals without thinking about the ultimate aspects of their behavior.
Accordingly, Old Warner embodies the continuation of the tradition. He insists Lottery must continue, even if it means sacrificing one person each year. His identity is tied to the survival of this violent system. Gerard's main idea is that violence is fundamental to human societies. The sacred often derives from violence, whether in religious rituals, legends, or cultural practices. This explains why the ritual of the Lottery, though horrific, functions as a sacred practice. Stoning becomes a collective bonding experience that strengthens social cohesion. Tessie Hutchinson becomes the victim. Her death cleanses society of collective guilt or anxiety. The villagers unite against her and strengthen their common identity.
References
Anggriawan, D. (2013). A human irony in Shirley Jackson's Lottery. Department of Language and Literature, English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Cultural Studies, Brawijaya University.
Anoosheh, S. M., & Oroskhan, M. H. (2018). Examining Durkheim's model of suicide on Shirley Jackson's Lottery. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 83, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILSHS.83.31
Bailey, T. (2014). Sacred violence in Shirley Jackson's Lottery. British and American Studies, 20(203), 37-42.
Hakaraia, T. (2019). Shirley Jackson’s ‘Lottery’ and William Empson’s seven types of ambiguity. Humanities, 8(3), 137. https://doi.org/10.3390/h8030137
Girard, R. (2000). The Girard reader (J. G. Williams, Ed.). The Crossroad Publishing Company.
Nugraha, I. S., & Mahdi, S. (2020). Transitivity system on building character of Mr. Summers in Lottery by Shirley Jackson. A Journal of Culture English Language Teaching Literature and Linguistics, 7(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.22219/celtic.v7i1.11980
Paramitha, N. P. (2021). Social domination and marginalization in Shirley Jackson’s Lottery: Critical discourse analysis and appraisal study. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i1.499
Extended Abstract
1. Introduction
Shirley Jackson's short story The Lottery is an exploration of tradition, ritual, and the darker side of human nature. This story was first published in 1948 and at the very beginning, it faced a lot of criticism because of the horrible portrayal of cultural norms and customs. Anyway, the events of the story take place in a small village in rural America. This short and strange story finally leaves the reader stunned, prompting questions such as: "What kind of luck is this that the people of the village are so attached to?”; “What is the relationship between what the villagers follow every year in a ritualistic manner, with their ‘standing in the death row’, or with the lottery?”; and “Why is such a deadly ritual basically not abolished?"; indeed, “According to what perception, falling into the death trap is called luck?”
2. Review of Literature
Anggriawan (2013) in a research titled Human Irony in Shirley Jackson's Lottery analyzes The Lottery using Peirce's semiotics to reveal human ironies. Bailey (2014) in a study called Sacred Violence in Shirley Jackson's Lottery, before applying René Gerard's theory on violence, religion, and sacrifice, first briefly examines the range of critical readings. In a joint research, Anoosheh and others (2018) have tried to read and interpret The Lottery in the light of Durkheim's theory. In this review, it is determined that despite the fact that the main character of the story is thought to be brutally killed by his friends and family, as a result of being too integrated into the structure of society, however, he actually committed altruistic suicide. Hakaraia (2019) argues that The Lottery can be read in five contrasting ways, referring to the influence adopted by Jackson from Empson's seven types of ambiguity. Nugraha and others (2020) analyze the main character of The Lottery by applying role-oriented systemic linguistics. Paramitha (2021) emphasizes in his research that the ideologies hidden in the text include social dominance and marginalization through tradition.
3. Methodology
In order to answer the above-mentioned questions, the author has tried to explain some of the socio-psychological indicators of the work while analyzing its underlying mythological framework to make it clear that in the basis of this story, we are dealing with a general pattern based on the sacrifice of the victim. In fact, in the story of The Lottery, the ritual of the sacrifice acts in order "prior to the symbolic representation" and for this reason, the unfolding of the sacrifice, as an objective and real phenomenon, organizes the internal system of the work. Therefore, the ironic situation of the story and the paradoxical logic that governs it originates from a kind of ancient anthropological attitude that, according to many thinkers, does not belong solely to primitive thought. In the following, we will see that the mythological model of René Gerard, a French American thinker, has the ability to analyze and criticize the current story, as a structural model that does not lose its dependence on real and objective history in mythological studies and literary theory.
4. Discussion
René Girard believes that what is mentioned in the Western tradition under the topic of mimesis or imitation is based on the subject's imitation of another; But according to him, desire is not the result of simulations, but actually its cause. This means that the subject's tendency towards the external matter is not due to its intrinsic and internal nature, but rather the desire is directed towards the other rather than towards the object and its possession. In this relationship, the other plays the role of a model or mediator, and therefore, whatever is desirable in his eyes, influences the subject, and therefore the subject's desire turns to it. Therefore, the desire for the object is on the second level and it is the result of such simulations. After proposing the "triangular model of mimetic desire" (cf. Girard, 2000: 33-44), Girard emphasizes that when the model is on par with the subject, or in other words, it is in the same social position with him in terms of type and rank, competition is formed. This competition continues until the subject and the model alternately change their places and are affected by each other. In this way, trying to emulate the other's desire will eventually lead to similarity between the parties; this similarity reaches to the point where it becomes nearly impossible to separate the parties from each other. French-American thinker, René Girard, offers a specific mythological psychoanalytic framework through which Shirley Jackson's Lottery can be analyzed. His theory of mimetic desire for violence, religion, and sacrifice reveals the hidden meanings in the story. Girard believes that all desires are simulations; that is, they come from imitating others. Our desires mirror what we perceive others desiring. In fact, desire consists of three elements: the subject, the model (someone whose desires we imitate), and the object (what we desire).
Girard argues that imitative desire leads to competition and conflict. When desires collide, violence erupts. To restore order, societies often scapegoat an individual or group and blame them for collective problems. Don Quixote is a good example to explain the imitative desire. Influenced by chivalric romances, this character imitates fictional knights. In the same way, the villagers in The Lottery imitate ancient rituals without thinking about the ultimate aspects of their behavior.
Accordingly, Old Warner embodies the continuation of the tradition. He insists Lottery must continue, even if it means sacrificing one person each year. His identity is tied to the survival of this violent system. Gerard's main idea is that violence is fundamental to human societies. The sacred often derives from violence, whether in religious rituals, legends, or cultural practices. This explains why the ritual of the Lottery, though horrific, functions as a sacred practice. Stoning becomes a collective bonding experience that strengthens social cohesion. Tessie Hutchinson becomes the victim. Her death cleanses society of collective guilt or anxiety. The villagers unite against her and strengthen their common identity.
References
Anggriawan, D. (2013). A human irony in Shirley Jackson's Lottery. Department of Language and Literature, English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Cultural Studies, Brawijaya University.
Anoosheh, S. M., & Oroskhan, M. H. (2018). Examining Durkheim's model of suicide on Shirley Jackson's Lottery. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 83, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILSHS.83.31
Bailey, T. (2014). Sacred violence in Shirley Jackson's Lottery. British and American Studies, 20(203), 37-42.
Hakaraia, T. (2019). Shirley Jackson’s ‘Lottery’ and William Empson’s seven types of ambiguity. Humanities, 8(3), 137. https://doi.org/10.3390/h8030137
Girard, R. (2000). The Girard reader (J. G. Williams, Ed.). The Crossroad Publishing Company.
Nugraha, I. S., & Mahdi, S. (2020). Transitivity system on building character of Mr. Summers in Lottery by Shirley Jackson. A Journal of Culture English Language Teaching Literature and Linguistics, 7(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.22219/celtic.v7i1.11980
Paramitha, N. P. (2021). Social domination and marginalization in Shirley Jackson’s Lottery: Critical discourse analysis and appraisal study. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i1.499
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