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Shahriyar Shadigu, Nafise Irani, Xadijeh Mohammadi,
Volume 17, Issue 67 (10-2024)
Abstract

The complexity of language has led to a wide range of methods and scientific approaches in its study, one of which examines the relationship between language and gender. This paper, using a descriptive-analytical method and a library-based approach, investigates how feminine gender influences the language of the novel Koli Kenare Atash. It explores the patterns through which femininity is expressed in the linguistic signs and language used in the text, and subsequently, how these usages represent female identity. In this novel, which seeks to portray the fragmented identity of women within a traditional society, the author initially embodies femininity through the unique application of linguistic codes in the narrative. These patterns include emotional language, monologue-driven speech, distinctive use of interrogative sentences, color terms, descriptive language focused on the body, lexical poverty, the language of silence, prescriptive language, sensory language, and the use of hesitation markers. Through employing these linguistic codes, the author successfully creates twelve linguistic subjects, each embodying various stereotypical roles and gender schemas associated with women.
Extended Abstract
  1. Introduction
One of the most influential epistemic domains that impact the formation of an individual's social standing is "gender." Alongside factors like social class, ethnicity, and culture, gender shapes social behavior and, consequently, reconstructs individuals’ linguistic behavior. This crucial component exists in a dynamic interaction with language within any linguistic community. On one side, individuals’ gender leads to distinct tendencies in language use, and on the other, language and linguistic signs themselves act as media that construct gender identities and position them within a hierarchy of social equalities or inequalities.
Given the significance of the relationship between language and gender, the issue of how gendered individuals and behaviors are represented in language and literature has become an important subject explored both explicitly and implicitly. Literary and narrative texts, as written media, are key arenas for the expression of gender, often showcasing gender identities through methods like feminine writing, reflecting gendered language in texts, and portraying culturally constructed genders.
This article adopts a specific linguistic approach to examine how gender is represented in literary and narrative texts. For this purpose, the novel Koli Kenare Atash, considered one of the outstanding examples of the feminine writing style in recent decades, has been selected for analysis. This postmodern novel is centered on portraying the "fragmented identity of women" within traditional and marginalized social classes. The author develops this theme by embedding femininity within the linguistic codes of the story, crafting subjects that express specific aspects of womanhood. She achieves this through the use of emotional language, monologue-centered discourse, the distinctive use of interrogative sentences, color terms, descriptive language focused on the body, lexical poverty, body language, linguistic silence, advisory tone, sensory language, and hesitation markers. By exposing the reader to this feminine language, the author not only creates female subjects and roles within the narrative but also encourages the reader to identify with these linguistic subjects and identities.Thus, this study, through an exclusive descriptive-analytical examination of the linguistic codes in this story, seeks to address two main questions:
1. In what forms is femininity embodied in the linguistic codes of Koli Kenare Atash?
2. How does employing these linguistic patterns lead to the creation of female subjects and the associated meanings within the story?

2. Theoretical Framework (Gender from Linguistic and Non-linguistic Perspectives)
Gender, as a domain of knowledge, gained recognition in sociology and feminist discourse before entering linguistic discussions. Feminist theorists were among the first to bring the topic of gender into the spotlight. "The feminist perspective on gender extended beyond a biological reality, as they defined gender as a socially constructed phenomenon" (Janet, 1998, p. 66). Gradually, the term "gender" was adopted in sociological discussions, and many cultural and critical theorists began using it to counter the reductive analyses of the concept of sex. This shift addressed the common misconception that equated gender solely with biological sex. According to these theorists, "gender refers to the social behaviors, expectations, and inclinations attributed to men and women, and thus, unlike biological sex, gender is considered a field of knowledge" (Mohammadi Asl, 2008 pp. 11-12; Ezzazi, 2001, p. 38).
Research in the field of language and gender began in the early 1970s. Initially, these studies focused on examining how gender as a variable influenced individuals’ verbal behavior at the phonetic level and their interaction styles. However, this research evolved over time (Davari Ardakani, 2008, pp. 162-163). Since the early days of gender linguistics, numerous theories have emerged. Robin Lakoff made the first breakthrough with her article Language and Woman's Place in the early 1970s, marking a significant shift in sociolinguistic studies. Lakoff argued that men’s and women’s language differ, and that language reflects and perpetuates women’s subordinate position in society (Mumeni, 2008, p. 66). Lakoff’s article was the catalyst for a series of studies in this field.
  1. Discussion and Analysis
  • Theme and Structure of the Novel Koli Kenare Atash
As a postmodern and metafictional work, this story unfolds as a painting that evolves alongside the reader and in step with the characters. The images depicted in the narrative represent a multifaceted identity of women within Iranian society. The main character, a girl named "Ayneh" (meaning “Mirror”), embodies her name, appearing fluid and reflective as she adopts different personas and plays various roles across different narrative levels.
  • Linguistic Patterns of Femininity
Gender portrayal in narrative literature is not determined merely by counting male and female characters or examining their gendered behaviors. Instead, "it influences all aspects from the production to the reception of the text, such that the background, assumptions, and expectations of the author, the nature of the work itself, and the reader’s background all play a role" (Stevens, 2008, pp. 92-93).
    • Imperative Sentences: This type of sentence, another form of declarative language, is where female characters in the story employ commands and requests to express desires, wishes, and aspirations.
    • Transitive Sentences: In the story, due to their perceived powerlessness and lack of agency relative to men, female characters often occupy the role of the object. As a result, transitive active and passive sentences appear frequently, positioning men as the subject and women as the object.
    • Constrained Sentences: Another way femininity is expressed emotionally is through the use of sentences modified with various adverbs—such as intensifying, descriptive, manner, additive, and conditional adverbs—to heighten emotional impact and emphasize the ideological discourse of femininity.
    • Repetitive Phrases: The last form of emotional language involves repetition. Women in the story sometimes repeat words or phrases to draw attention, evoke feelings, and express emphasis or appeal.
    • Descriptive-Body Language: The use of feminine and bodily terms is another linguistic feature unique to female characters. Known as "body writing," this type of language emphasizes the gendered positioning of women and men as subjects in the narrative.
    • Lexical Poverty: This term, coined by Roger Fowler, refers to "the lack of sufficient vocabulary to convey a specific concept" (Fowler et al., 2011, p. 109). In some instances, the language of the female characters reflects limited vocabulary due to illiteracy, cultural deprivation, low social status, or other factors, leading to ambiguity or inadequacy in conveying meaning.
    • Use of Body Language: In communication schemas, messages—whether verbal or non-verbal—are encoded according to the situation and exchanged between sender and receiver. Female characters in the story, as message senders, frequently employ non-verbal codes. In other words, they communicate with others not only through verbal language but also by drawing on other modes of expression.
  •   Linguistic Silence: In many instances, rather than using words, women communicate through silence or absence of speech. This linguistic trait in female language suggests both the submissiveness of women and their perceived weakness in verbal communication. In this story, women rarely engage in verbal expression or speech.
  •   Advisory Language: As mothers and nurturers, and due to their caring and self-sacrificing nature, women often impart their experiences to their children and others around them, positioning themselves as advisors or guides.
  •   Sensory Language: Women’s attentiveness in descriptions and their focus on making experiences tangible for the audience lead them to use sensory language more frequently than men. In this story, sensory language emerges through descriptions and imagery that engage the five senses, creating a multisensory effect.
  • Hesitation Markers: Another feature of feminine language is the use of hesitation markers. These words form a linguistic code that conveys the speaker’s sense of uncertainty and hesitation (Lakoff, as cited by Mahmoudi Bakhtiyari & M. Dehghani, 2012, p. 549). The use of such words in women’s language is attributed to lower self-confidence, lack of assertiveness, and their unstable social position in a patriarchal society.
  •   Female Subjects: In the previous section, the linguistic patterns of femininity in this story were introduced. Through the use of these linguistic patterns, the author creates subjects throughout the story that symbolize the fragmented identity of women, embodying distinct expressions of femininity.

4. Conclusion
Gender is one of the most important external, non-linguistic factors influencing the formation of language. As a cognitive variable, it stems from the sex of individuals and leads to the manifestation of specific social behaviors, which in turn influence linguistic behaviors. This article, based on this approach, examined how female gender affects language and the role of language in reconstructing feminine identity in narrative texts. For this purpose, the novel Kooli Kenar Atash was selected.
Through the analysis of this novel, it was found that the linguistic patterns used in the story are feminine, and the author, by incorporating these patterns into the narrative, has created female subjects. These female subjects carry specific connotations of femininity, embodying gender stereotypes and archetypes associated with women in lower, marginalized social classes. Thus, it can be claimed that Kooli Kenar Atash is a thoroughly feminist novel, written to depict the fragmented identity of women. The feminine language employed in this novel not only reflects the insecure and powerless position of the second sex in society but also becomes a tool of self-oppression for women, perpetuating the hierarchical gender inequalities.

Fatemeh Farhoodi Pour,
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Abstract

The current article attempts to describe, examine, and analyze the representation of women in the allegory of dream from a mythological perspective, focusing on its evolution from antiquity to the contemporary era. Using comparative analysis, the article explores examples of allegory of dream across different cultures and historical periods. Based on the research corpus, it was found that women in allegories of dream often appear in the form of figures such as the guide-saint, mother, journey goal, villain, and, in rare cases, the female seeker. Historically, there has been an evolution in the portrayal of women in allegory of dream, and in the contemporary era, there is a greater diversity in their roles. The path of the heroine’s journey differs from that of the hero’s journey, and Maureen Murdock’s spiral pattern appears more suitable than Joseph Campbell’s hero’s journey for describing the woman’s journey—a pattern emphasizing the significance of women’s self-awareness and alignment with their inner consciousness. The analysis of allegories of dream reveals the transformation of women’s roles throughout history and the influence of various cultural and social factors on this transformation. While myths emphasized traditional roles, the contemporary era has seen a broadening and diversification in this area.
Introduction
This article explores the roles and positions of women in the narratives of the literary genre Allegory of Dream. By posing the question, “What is the contribution of women in these mystagogical journeys?” the author seeks to uncover the diverse roles women play in such narratives, from ancient myths to contemporary works.
By referring to the origins of the Hero’s Journey in the rites of passage and its transmission to the collective unconscious through archetypes and narratives, particularly journeys after death, the article introduces the Le roman initiatiqe and its subgenre, the Allegory of Dream. In this literary genre, the hero, by entering a dreamlike world and overcoming obstacles with the aid of guidance, attains a truth and, upon returning, recounts their journey. The article then emphasizes the central role of the hero in these narratives and raises its main question regarding the contribution of women in these mystagogical journeys.
The problem statement indicates that the heroes of mystagogical narratives are generally male, but it also refers to the Women’s Heroic Journey and the instruction of feminine mysteries. The author points to the scarcity of explicit documents regarding the instruction of feminine religious secrets and the potential reluctance of women to express their spiritual experiences due to severe consequences. Nevertheless, the presence of women in Allegory of Dream narratives has not been overlooked, and their depiction fluctuates across a spectrum from the maternal goddess and guide to transfigured and seductive beings. The article notes the limited number of women’s heroic journeys (such as Ishtar and the Christian Wife) in Allegory of Dream narratives and proposes the research hypothesis.
The research hypothesis initially posited that the pattern of the heroic journey in these narratives aligns with Joseph Campbell’s model, and the dominance of a long-standing patriarchal perspective prevented women from embarking on such heroic journeys. However, the presence of figures such as Sophia, guiding goddesses (the Lady of Wine, Circe, the Lady of the Boat, Daena, Hazrat Fatima (PBUH), Beatrice), and women who are the object of male heroes’ journeys (Eurydice) challenges this hypothesis. Furthermore, the significant presence of women portrayed as infernal or antagonistic figures is also noteworthy. The article concludes that women in these narratives possess multifaceted personas and play different roles, raising the question of whether the form of the women’s heroic journey is different.

Methodology
The research methodology employs library research. The author, by examining scholarly literature, has identified and reviewed numerous Allegory of Dream narratives and categorized the depiction of women across different historical periods. Initially, Joseph Campbell’s Hero’s Journey theory serves as the theoretical foundation, but the perspectives of Maureen Murdock on the woman’s hero journey were also incorporated.
The research background introduces some previous articles and studies in the field of the structure, origin, and functions of the Allegory of Dream literary genre, positioning this article as a subsequent step in examining the depiction of women in this literary form.
The definitions section outlines Allegory of Dream as a traditional form of storytelling, particularly popular in the Middle Ages, in which the hero falls asleep in a dreamlike setting and encounters anthropomorphic characters or abstract concepts. The presence of a “guide” is introduced as a constant element in these works. The article also notes the decline in the popularity of this literary genre after the Middle Ages and the emergence of its modern examples. While “The Romance of the Rose” is usually considered the origin of this literary form, the author, by referring to numerous accounts of spiritual journeys in various civilizations, considers its origin to be older and links it to the mechanism of the human mind and its perception of the afterlife. Subsequently, the constant elements and conventions in narratives of dream journeys after death are enumerated, and using a structuralist approach and Propp’s model, the relatively fixed structure of this type of narration is described. Finally, Joseph Campbell’s “Hero’s Journey” model, along with its stages, is depicted, and its influence on subsequent narrations, especially in cinema, is mentioned. The author, noting the linear path of Campbell’s hero’s journey, considers its goal to be the hero’s attainment of individuality and maturity and their return to guide others. Additionally, the types of heroes in allegory of dream, from the mystery seekers of primitive tribes to prophets and mystics, are mentioned, and the four initial states of allegory of dream narratives are delineated. The reasons for the hero’s journey to the otherworld are also listed, and the role of dreamlike states and the uncanny atmosphere in these narratives is emphasized. At the end of this section, by examining statistical examples, the dominance of male heroes (except for Ishtar and the Christian Wife) is noted, and it is stated that women appear in these narratives in other forms.

Results and Discussion
The depiction of women in Allegory of Dream examines the different roles of women in these narratives:
1. The Guide: The feminine element (Anima in Jungian psychology) as a mediator between the self and the unconscious serves as a guide for male protagonists. Examples of female guides in myths (e.g. the Lady of Wine, Circe, the Lady of the Boat), Zoroastrian narratives (Daena), religious texts (Hazrat Fatima (PBUH) in Risalat al-Ghufran), and contemporary Persian literature (Khosrow Dokht in The Black Shroud, the Lady of Qal’e-ye Soqrim in Nima Yushij’s poetry) are analyzed. Beatrice’s luminous figure in Dante’s Divine Comedy is described in detail as a comprehensive example of a guide on a spiritual journey.
2. The Mother: The maternal aspect of the feminine element in Allegory of Dream is examined. The image of the “Earth” as a wet nurse in Persian mystical allegories is cited as an example, although it lacks a glorious persona. Beatrice’s stern behavior in the Divine Comedy is also considered to stem from maternal compassion.
3. Beloved Women as the Object of the Lover’s Journey: The hero’s attempt to bring the dead beloved back to the world of the living is examined as one of the goals of the journey to the afterlife. The myth of Orpheus’s journey to bring back Eurydice is described as a classic example, and the recurrence of this theme in contemporary narratives (the film What Dreams May Come and the animation Hercules) is mentioned.
4. The Dark Aspect of Women’s Depiction: The negative figures of women in allegory of dreams, from the dark queen Ereshkigal and Ishtar in myths to the foul-smelling Daena in Zoroastrian narratives and sinful women in religious allegories (the hell of the Arda Viraf Nameh and Dante’s Inferno with the presence of Eve, Zuleikha, Semiramis, and witches) are examined. In the narratives of the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) ascension (Mi’raj), numerous depictions of women’s torment in hell are also portrayed. These images in religious allegories are presented with the aim of admonishing and informing the audience of the consequences of their actions in the afterlife. Women in these narratives are often introduced as types and rarely have specific human names.
5. Women as Seekers: Among the two poles of saintly and villainous female figures, two examples of women who are called to the hero’s journey, Ishtar and the Christian Wife in The Pilgrim’s Progress, are examined. Ishtar’s journey to the underworld and her return in exchange for her beloved Dumuzi is analyzed as a woman’s heroic journey with different characteristics from the male journey. Referring to Maureen Murdock’s perspective, the author describes the female journey as spiral and more internal than the linear path of Campbell’s male journey. The journey of the Christian Wife is also examined as an adventurous passage but with more support from male guides and relative ease compared to her husband’s journey in the first part of the story.

Conclusion
The article concludes that the depiction of women in Allegory of Dream can be categorized into five groups: guide-saint, mother, object of the journey, villain, and female seeker, with the guide-saint figure generally prevailing. Although villainous women are the dark aspect of female guides and saints, the prominent presence of female guides, especially a figure like Beatrice, overshadows the depiction of infernal women. However, in Islamic narratives after Risalat al-Ghufran, the role of the female guide diminishes, and the figure of the spiritual old man replaces her, indicating a decline in the status of women. In the contemporary era, the figure of the female guide reappears in literature. The small number of female seekers suggests that the women’s heroic journey is different from the male journey; its goal is not to achieve individuality and guide others, but rather a return to the self, reconciliation with the inner being, and respect for nature and the female path. The female hero reaches a fulfilling resolution when she can accept her inner contradictions and attain deep awareness and peace.
 

Abdul Moqim Nejrabi, Samira Bameshki, Mohammad Javad Mahdavi, Rohollah Eslami,
Volume 18, Issue 69 (5-2025)
Abstract

Literature, particularly the novel, offers a suitable platform for reflecting on and critiquing social and cultural issues. In Afghanistan, violence against women stems not only from political crises and wars but also from patriarchal structures, cultural and economic poverty, and weak support systems. This violence is systematically and institutionally reproduced across various dimensions of women's daily lives and within different layers of society. Afghan women writers in the 1390s (Solar Hijri) utilized the narrative capacities of the novel to expose various forms of structural violence against women, thereby shaping a critical discourse surrounding power inequalities between women and men. This study aims to investigate and analyze the representation of six types of structural violence—psychological, physical, economic, social, sexual, and legal—in two contemporary women's novels: The Brightness of Ashes by Zahra Yeganeh and Let Me Write for You by Nahid Mehrgan. The theoretical framework of this article is Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics" theory, which, through a structural analysis of gender relations, considers violence an instrument for perpetuating male dominance. The present research employs a qualitative content analysis method with a purposeful sampling method. Findings suggest that psychological violence is the most prevalent form of violence in both novels, and the representation of violence occurs through structures such as tradition, family, religion, and law. These representations have led to the creation of characters who react to dominance, some through resistance and others through acceptance. Contemporary women's literature not only exposes gender inequalities but also, by raising awareness, paves the way for social transformation.
Introduction
Narrative literature, by its very nature, possesses a unique capacity to depict the intricate complexities of social, cultural, and gender-based issues through an artistic and impactful language. Significantly, in Afghanistan during the 1390s (Solar Hijri), with the growing prominence of women writers and accompanying societal shifts, the novel emerged as a vital platform for articulating women's experiences and critiquing patriarchal structures. Indeed, within the Afghan social context, women are consistently exposed to various forms of violence due to protracted conflicts, deeply entrenched traditional structures, poverty, and institutional discrimination. Consequently, this cycle of violence is systematically reproduced, and contemporary literature, through its representation, has played a crucial illuminating and critical role.
The novels written by Afghan women authors in the 1390s have, therefore, provided fertile ground for critiquing unequal gender relations. These novels, blending artistic, narrative, and at times documentary styles, have not only reflected women's violent experiences but have also challenged dominant oppressive systems. As a result, this literary discourse re-examines power relations from a gendered perspective, highlighting the lived experiences of women in the face of structural dominance. Crucially, in these novels, women writers have not merely recounted individual oppressions but have also exposed the underlying social and institutional roots of violence.
Building on this context, this research specifically investigates the factors contributing to violence against women, the consequences of such violence, and the various types of violence present in the selected novels. The choice of these two novels from the 1390s, given the significant presence of women writers and the unique social characteristics of that period, thus offers a suitable foundation for analyzing the representation of violence in contemporary Afghan literature.

Research Questions
  • What types of structural violence against women are reflected in the novels The Brightness of Ashes and Let Me Write for You?
  • What factors contribute to the manifestation of violence against women in the chosen novels?
  • What consequences does violence have for the female characters in these two novels?

Literature Review
Existing research on Afghan women's literature have primarily focused on examining the status of women or analyzing feminine writing styles. However, a structural analysis of violence against women, particularly drawing upon feminist theories like Kate Millett's Sexual Politics, has received considerably less attention. In this seminal study, Millett argues that the relationship between men and women is not merely psychological or biological; rather, she analyzes it as a structural dynamic rooted in dominance. From this perspective, literature can serve as a powerful arena for exposing the mechanisms through which male dominance is perpetuated.

Methodology
This study employs a qualitative content analysis approach with a purposeful sampling strategy. The core of our investigation revolves around two women's novels from the 1390s (Solar Hijri), chosen specifically for the purpose of the present study. Our selection criteria included themes of gender-based violence, authorship by women writers, and the clear representation of patriarchal structures. Data analysis was conducted using Kate Millett's Sexual Politics theory, achieved through the identification and classification of recurring semantic and narrative patterns. The analytical process involved extracting meaningful units, coding concepts related to violence, and interpreting these within the broader context of male power structures.

Findings
Our analysis of The Brightness of Ashes and Let Me Write for You reveals that psychological violence is the most prevalent form of abuse across both novels. Furthermore, in The Brightness of Ashes, other forms of violence, including physical, economic, social, sexual, and legal, are also vividly portrayed. The female characters in these novels consistently confront patriarchal structures enforced through tradition, family, religion, and law. Significantly, these acts of violence lead to profound consequences such as depression, family disintegration, religious animosity, deep-seated resentment, and even suicidal ideation. These issues can be effectively analyzed through Millett's Sexual Politics theory, which frames violence as a tool for maintaining gendered dominance. Moreover, the contrasting responses of the characters Zahra and Mehrgan highlight two distinct approaches to gender-based violence: one characterized by resistance and the other by the acceptance of imposed roles. These divergent responses contribute to the formation of a critical discourse within contemporary Afghan women's literature, demonstrating how this body of work challenges gender oppression and advocates for social change.

Conclusion
This research concludes that 1390s Afghan women's novels not only mirror structural violence but also function as powerful instruments for critiquing patriarchal order. Kate Millett's Sexual Politics theory offers a robust framework, effectively illuminating the complex mechanisms of male dominance present in these literary works and enabling a more profound analysis of the gendered violence embedded within their narratives. By focusing on the intrinsic link between literature, gender, and power, this study underscores literature's vital role in fostering awareness, inspiring resistance, and ultimately laying the groundwork for meaningful social transformation.
 


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