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Mehdi Dadkhah Tehrani,
Volume 13, Issue 50 (5-2020)
Volume 13, Issue 50 (5-2020)
Abstract
Khandidani [to be read and seen at the same time] is a kind of poetry that has an inseparable connection with visual arts. Mehrdad Fallah, as an Iranian contemporary poet, has been focusing on the written /performative aspects of poetry rather than its spoken aspects, which is manifested in the form and structure of his poems. Fallah introduces Khandidani as “rediscovering writing and writing symbols’’ which converts to ‘’stage poetry” in the process of reading and seeing the poem. The primary assumption of the current paper was that the initial idea of Khandidani was formed under the influence of the world literature, and in particular Guillaume Apollinaire, who was mainly interested in the written form of the poem, painting and cubism. It should be mentioned that there are also instances in classical Persian poetry which utilized some of the techniques that Fallah employed in his poetry. In the current paper, the inter-artistic, intertextual and comparative basis of such poetry was studied. Moreover, it was clarified that how the poem is read and seen on both sides of the poet/ reader dichotomy.
Negin Binazir,
Volume 13, Issue 52 (12-2020)
Volume 13, Issue 52 (12-2020)
Abstract
Modernity and the paradoxical consequences of modern experience, especially the modern patterns of creating a homogenous society, have detached humans from their individuality and personal identity. In such a situation, the victims are the subjects and objects who are doomed to live in a socially disconnected world. Existentialism and the story of situation have both reacted, employing their own philosophical and literary devices, to loneliness, stress, fear and absurdity of the modern experience. The current study has investigated Bahram Sadeghi’s novel “Malakout” [The Heavenly Kingdom] and two short stories by using the parameters of the story of situation and Kafka’s worldview. The paper attempted to show how the characters of these stories live in vain in the routines of everyday life and how they are trapped in situations which neither they can fully comprehend nor they .are able to set themselves free. In search of self and the meaning of love and peace, they try hopelessly to exit the labyrinth of modern life. Such a situation has affected every aspect of their lives and seemingly death is the only way out
Ramin Moharrami, Chiman Fathi,
Volume 14, Issue 53 (3-2021)
Volume 14, Issue 53 (3-2021)
Abstract
The nihilistic transition in Akhavan's poetry is the main focus of this research. Akhavan's poetry, with its modern philosophical background, contains profound meanings that make it worthy of analysis beyond the ordinary. One of the most obvious of these meanings is the dialectic of hope and despair. Akhavan's acquaintance with the ideas of modern Europe, like for instance, the philosophical ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche, led us to analyze the tendencies of the nihilistic transition of his poetry considering Nietzsche's "transition from passive nihilism to active nihilism”. Upon analysis it became clear that Akhavan's poetic thought reflects Nietzschean nihilism, as it can be traced in his views such as denying the metaphysical tendency and relying on the human will of elitism, specific views of morality, becoming, and also eternal return, considered as the way to create the superman. Thus, the results of the research showed that Akhavan's poetry, seemingly is a reflection of a kind of passive imagery. However, with a closer look, it became clear that his poems have specific formal and semantic features based on which the emotion of despair and nihilistic thought became active rather than being passive. The method of the current study was qualitative and the approach to analysis was a philosophical critique approach and it also adopted a descriptive approach.
Introduction
One of the dominant themes of contemporary Persian poetry is the dialectic of "hope" and "despair", which, above all, is the result of the socio-political factors of the age, which sometimes lead to specific philosophical insights. One of the contemporary poets of Persian is Mehdi Akhavan Sales, whose poetry is often associated with socio-political themes, but after a while, his political grief and national ideal moved towards philosophical grief and a genuine human ideal which by taking ontological questions, finally confronts his poetry with a nihilistic vision. Part of this insight is the result of the Akhavan's acquaintance with the philosophical ideas of Nietzsche (1844-1900) (see: Akhavan Sales, 1981: 146-145; Akhavan Sales, 1990: 337, 89, 40). In this regard, Nietzsche seeks to unload human knowledge from mere rationalism and replace it with emotions and feelings. He spoke in the language of life and comprehensively acknowledged life through “the will to power" and the belief in "becoming" and "eternal return" in order to re-evaluate the values of the superhuman. Like Nietzsche, Akhavan separates his path from its contemporaries.
Theoretical Background
Asadollahi and Fathi (2020), in an article, examining the types of Nietzschean nihilism in Forough Farrokhzad's poetry and analyzing the tendencies of his poetry, have acknowledged life in its specific nihilistic transition. The difference between this research and the present article expresses the different poetic thought and behavior of contemporary Persian poets with a desperate context and the nihilistic culture of their time. Mousavi and Homayoun (2009) have also investigated Nietzsche's passive absurdity in the Blind Owl. Given the theoretical foundations of Nietzschean nihilism, the authors have shown that the narrator in this work, despite much effort, is finally unable to free himself from passive nihilism and to change to active nihilism unlike Zoroaster Nietzsche.
Objectives and Questions
The main objective of the current study is denying the continuity of absolute passive nihilism and proving the organic flow of general nihilism in Akhavan's poetry - which, like Nietzsche's system of nihilism, begins with passive nihilism but ends with active nihilism. We call this approach the "nihilistic transition" in Akhavan's poetry. Therefore, this article intends to answer the following question: What are the methods or tendencies of Akhavan's poetry in acknowledging life in the approach of Nietzschean nihilism and how do they manifest themselves?
Analysis and Discussion
In general, denial and despair are the major themes in Akhavan’s poetry. However, one can also detect a stability in his thoughts. Both of these contradicting views shape his worldview (Mokhtari, 2000: 458 - 459). Thus, although in most of Akhavan's poems a concept of futility can be seen, he also embraces life:
Whatever you want to do, you know yourself / if it is useless, or whatever it is, how many and why, / this is and there is no other./ Death says: Hmm! How useless! / Life says: But you have to live again, / you have to live, / you have to live! ... .” (Akhavan, 1991: 178)
In summary, the transition from passive nihilism to active one can be traced in these themes: Akhavan's poetic thought and style in dealing with metaphysics, the metaphorical truth in the Akhavan's view on destiny, and the manifestations of becoming and eternal return in his poetry.
References
Akhavan Sales, Mehdi (1981). From this Avesta, fifth edition, Tehran: Morvarid.
Akhavan Sales, Mehdi (1990). Innovations and the gift and meeting of Nima Yoshij, second edition, Tehran: Bozorgmehr.
Akhavan Sales, Mehdi (1991). In the small autumn yard in prison; Life says but you have to live ..; Hell but cold, Tehran: Bozorgmehr.
Assadollahi, Khodabakhsh and Chiman Fathi (2020). "Comparative analysis of Forough Farrokhzad's poetry and Nietzschean nihilism". Research of contemporary literature of world. No.1.pp. 29-60.
Mokhtari, Mohammad (2000). Man in Contemporary Poetry or Understanding the Presence of the Other, Tehran: Toos.
Mousavi, Seyed Kazem and Fatemeh Homayoun (2009). "Passive nonsense in the blind owl." Journal of Literary Criticism. No. 8. pp. 111-139.
Foad Molooodi,
Volume 14, Issue 55 (10-2021)
Volume 14, Issue 55 (10-2021)
Abstract
Abstract
In the present study, we have set out to depict the relationship of mythical and modern Iranian stories from the perspective of the philosophy of Art. Hegel, in his idealistic formation of the history of philosophy of Art, showed that in the primary stages of civilization, Art was the outcome of the connection of “absolute” and “essence.” As a result, Art has failed to show absolute unity with “absolute.” Along the same line, Heidegger and Lukács considered the distance between Art and “essence” as a sign of decline. Meanwhile, the members of the Frankfurt School, put forward new ideas in the Hegelian context of the time; they demonstrated that modern Art and literature, are moving away from reality and attempted to approach “essence,” “universal,” and “unity.” In modernist stories, employing myth is one way to establish a relationship between “unity” and “universal” and so we experience deformation and disintegration of the contemporary world, we witness a flashback, a mythical unity in the shape of formal avant-gardism. From the same perspective, Hedayat and Golshiri are main representatives of two fundamental breaks in modern Iranian stories from 1300 to 1357. Along with modern deformation of the contemporaneous forms, they included flashbacks and Iranian myths, in the form of transformation and deconstruction, in their stories. The results indicated that these two authors, in a dialectical fashion, depicted both the spirit of modernity and the need for historical rereading and representation.
Extended Abstract
Hegel's dissatisfaction with the art of his time reflects, on the one hand, the idealistic aspect of his philosophy and, on the other hand, its opposition to modern optimism. Hegel predicted that modernity leads to ultimate rationalization and the absolute soul will come to terms with itself. Although Hegel himself did not address this contradiction, his art theories led some of the twentieth-century thinkers to adopt newer formulations of the relationship between contemporary art and philosophy. The members of the "Frankfurt School" known as the advocates of "critical theory" have the most complex relation to Hegel's philosophy of art. Their literary and artistic views are on the one hand in a Hegelian tradition, and they were completely sympathetic to Hegel in that the mission of art is to discover essence, existence, and truth. However, they did not accept the impasse of modern art, and in a multifaceted effort sought to show in the works of art of their time the relation of critical modern art to genuine essence and consciousness. The Frankfurt School found that writers such as Joyce in the process of shaping the modern form, progressed dialectically. At the same time, inventing new fictional structures that disintegrated the modern world and the ever-changing world of the twentieth century, showed that the united and mythical world of the past has also been summoned in various ways in their modernist work. In the works of these authors, from the heart of the opposition of the modern and the absolute, and their apparent contradiction, a general unity is achieved, and through this unity it can be seen that the duality of form and content - which is the dominant basis of literary analysis, does not exist in the essence of art. This rereading of Hegel by the Frankfurters is one of their richest lesser-known achievements. If we look at the Persian modernist fiction from the perspective of the Frankfurt school and its relation to myth (from 1300 to 1357), we can say that Sadegh Hedayat and Houshang Golshiri are the main representatives of the two main breaks in Persian story.
The analysis of Hedayat's "Blind Owl" and Golshiri's "Innocents" revealed to us that these texts possess many of the brilliant aspects that the Frankfurters considered for modern art: the incoherence and disintegration of the modern in the form of the disintegration of the fiction form, the meaninglessness of the duality of form and content. Formal avant-garde and mythical recurrence, which are two opposing aspects, have been used simultaneously in the text, and from their contradiction, a dialectic has been formed that guarantees the general unity of the work. The representation of the unifying and mythical matter - regardless of its function - has created a "aura" for these texts and this aura has linked the text to a historical and mythical tradition and has summoned the spaces of the past to the present. The mythical nature of these texts has made them difficult, misunderstood, and obscure, and has led to the rebellion of the text against the simplification of the contemporary cultural industry. Rereading the past has helped critics of the present, and both are used to understand future possibilities. In the close connection between the past and the present, and the continuous and simultaneous rotation between the two, the originality of these texts and their openness has been realized. These texts constantly revolve around essences and absolutes that are beyond the reach of everyday reality and instrumental rationality. Pure moments are depicted in the text through which the reader can reach genuine ontological experiences.These texts escape easy access and have found a place in the discourse of the specificity of modernist texts. The combination of the above-mentioned aesthetic features - all of which derive from the dialectic of the forward and avant-garde form of movement, and its mythical backward movement - has enabled the two authors to make a connection between Iranian society and modernity. In other words, Hedayat and Golshiri are turning points that have shown the transformation of mythical foundations in contemporary Iranian society and have outlined the way we Iranians deal with these foundations. Rereading, rethinking and deconstructing these mythical foundations are the main features of the avant-garde of these two authors.
,
Volume 14, Issue 55 (10-2021)
Volume 14, Issue 55 (10-2021)
Abstract
Abstract
Following the foundations of the flow of modernity and the positivism paradigm on the level of human life, moral crises in various dimensions and social anomalies were formed in the epistemology of relativism in the Western world. Consequently, its intellectual foundations of thought were strongly criticized by rival schools, even in the West itself. On this basis, the leaders of the capitalist system, in order to cover their weaknesses, and to consolidate their epistemic foundations with another element called mysticism, have tried to consolidate their attitude and worldview. In this research by adopting a descriptive-analytical method based on interpretive approach, ten works from the most prominent mystical-educational novels of the world (blade edge, Siddhartha, Jonathan Sea Bird, Magic Mountain, World Sophie, and Warrior of the Light, Little Prince, and Three Thousands with Murray, Mystery and Heavenly Prophecy) have been selected to be investigated. The findings of the study indicated that the themes and content of selected works can be categorized in two opposing groups. The first group is critical to the capitalist system and tries to provide a way out of the crisis, while the other defends the capitalist system and its cultural and social values, which led to the formation of mystical and quasi-mystical works in the West.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Renaissance and Capitalistic attitudes conduced to fundamental socio-cultural changes in the modern man’s life. In spite of its positive achievement, this intellectual paradigm introduced culturally and psychologically negative and contradictory dimensions into human life. Of the most important consequences of this approach in human life one can point to is prioritizing the burgeoning individualism, utilitarianism, and hedonism (Gardner, 1386), giving precedence to pure rationalism, alienation, and reification (Emamjom’e et al, 1395, pp. 204-207; Sadeghi, Fasa’ei, and Erfanmanesh, 1394, pp. 65-70) and various social misdemeanors like war crimes, social delinquencies, terrorism and carnages. Various approaches have emerged to help humanity out of the status quo. The epistemic frameworks of Postmodernism and Critical Theory were among the approaches which depicted a satisfactory structure to emancipate human beings from the existing state of affairs (Haghighat, 1392, pp. 518-520; Lacht, 1377, p. 286). Some of the social scientists started critiquing this development. For example: Max Weber called prioritization of pure rationalism the iron cage of bureaucracy and human alienation (1982, pp. 187 -179). If we consider literature as a prism reflecting the desires and the needs of man, one of the boldest spectrums and greatest functions of this imaginative prism is to reflect the shared human emotions, insights and beliefs of which those works of literature which have attained the status of a masterpiece could bear the onus of such an undertaking comme il faut. Hence, of the most valuable sources for reading are masterpieces of which anthropomorphic concerns were the drive for their creation. What is being pursued in this study is to investigate the evaluation of human nature in the significant mystical works of the twentieth century. The main problem is the issues these works are dealing with which made the audience overwhelmingly welcoming for them.
Methodology: The resonant clash between the two paradigms of positivism and interpretivism in social sciences has been manifested in terms of several binaries concerning ontological, epistemological, anthropomorphic and methodological features of these two approaches. The method this study adopted was that the author has tried to selectively pick the various and significant works in this genre which were written through an analytical and critiquing angle and at the same time investigate the cultural, social and literary developments of western world comprehensively. After describing and analyzing the content of these works with an interpretivist outlook, the author examined and surveyed the socio-literary situation of the western world at that time which had led to the creation of the aforementioned works.
Findings/Conclusion: Scientific and epistemological development which is among the aftermaths of scientific and industrial revolution of the Twentieth Century has brought about two mystical approaches in the fictional works of world’s eminent writers:
Following the foundations of the flow of modernity and the positivism paradigm on the level of human life, moral crises in various dimensions and social anomalies were formed in the epistemology of relativism in the Western world. Consequently, its intellectual foundations of thought were strongly criticized by rival schools, even in the West itself. On this basis, the leaders of the capitalist system, in order to cover their weaknesses, and to consolidate their epistemic foundations with another element called mysticism, have tried to consolidate their attitude and worldview. In this research by adopting a descriptive-analytical method based on interpretive approach, ten works from the most prominent mystical-educational novels of the world (blade edge, Siddhartha, Jonathan Sea Bird, Magic Mountain, World Sophie, and Warrior of the Light, Little Prince, and Three Thousands with Murray, Mystery and Heavenly Prophecy) have been selected to be investigated. The findings of the study indicated that the themes and content of selected works can be categorized in two opposing groups. The first group is critical to the capitalist system and tries to provide a way out of the crisis, while the other defends the capitalist system and its cultural and social values, which led to the formation of mystical and quasi-mystical works in the West.
Extended abstract
Introduction: Renaissance and Capitalistic attitudes conduced to fundamental socio-cultural changes in the modern man’s life. In spite of its positive achievement, this intellectual paradigm introduced culturally and psychologically negative and contradictory dimensions into human life. Of the most important consequences of this approach in human life one can point to is prioritizing the burgeoning individualism, utilitarianism, and hedonism (Gardner, 1386), giving precedence to pure rationalism, alienation, and reification (Emamjom’e et al, 1395, pp. 204-207; Sadeghi, Fasa’ei, and Erfanmanesh, 1394, pp. 65-70) and various social misdemeanors like war crimes, social delinquencies, terrorism and carnages. Various approaches have emerged to help humanity out of the status quo. The epistemic frameworks of Postmodernism and Critical Theory were among the approaches which depicted a satisfactory structure to emancipate human beings from the existing state of affairs (Haghighat, 1392, pp. 518-520; Lacht, 1377, p. 286). Some of the social scientists started critiquing this development. For example: Max Weber called prioritization of pure rationalism the iron cage of bureaucracy and human alienation (1982, pp. 187 -179). If we consider literature as a prism reflecting the desires and the needs of man, one of the boldest spectrums and greatest functions of this imaginative prism is to reflect the shared human emotions, insights and beliefs of which those works of literature which have attained the status of a masterpiece could bear the onus of such an undertaking comme il faut. Hence, of the most valuable sources for reading are masterpieces of which anthropomorphic concerns were the drive for their creation. What is being pursued in this study is to investigate the evaluation of human nature in the significant mystical works of the twentieth century. The main problem is the issues these works are dealing with which made the audience overwhelmingly welcoming for them.
Methodology: The resonant clash between the two paradigms of positivism and interpretivism in social sciences has been manifested in terms of several binaries concerning ontological, epistemological, anthropomorphic and methodological features of these two approaches. The method this study adopted was that the author has tried to selectively pick the various and significant works in this genre which were written through an analytical and critiquing angle and at the same time investigate the cultural, social and literary developments of western world comprehensively. After describing and analyzing the content of these works with an interpretivist outlook, the author examined and surveyed the socio-literary situation of the western world at that time which had led to the creation of the aforementioned works.
Findings/Conclusion: Scientific and epistemological development which is among the aftermaths of scientific and industrial revolution of the Twentieth Century has brought about two mystical approaches in the fictional works of world’s eminent writers:
- The dominant network which reins over the contemporary world of ours, has created and promoted a secular type of mysticism (a blending of oriental mysticism with a mixture of ideas from occidental schools of thought like humanism and secularism). This has led to the creation of works like Paulo Coelho’s The Alchemist and The Warrior of Light and Rhonda Byrne’s The Secret and The Magic and James Redfield’s The Celestine Prophecy. Some of these works like Coelho’s and Byrne’s were among the world bestsellers and found international fans and readership. The following are among their characteristics:
- All of them has a polished appearance which is very similar to Islamic mysticism, but they are quite dissimilar in their intentions and method. The aforementioned works are all concerned with the realization of worldly and materialistic goals; bridging the gap caused by estrangement of man from religions and restoring her spiritual and physical abilities.
- These works manifest a kind of mystical journey which take as its core belief the idea that human thoughts have a magnetic ability and is capable of bringing change to her life. Good thoughts like hope, belief, and optimism can beget happiness and wealth while bad thoughts such as negativity, fear, and anger hinder happiness and felicity.
- Every person’s fate is a direct result of her or his own thoughts and actions. Each person can achieve her or his goals through perseverance, hard work and good feeling.
- Of other mutual and common themes and teachings between these works and Persian mystical and didactic literature we can pinpoint the love-centeredness of creation, cosmic and humanistic interaction and correspondence, universal language of signs, carpe diem, perseverance of the traveler [in the spiritual journey], the necessity of an old wise mentor, and the necessity of concurrence with fate.
- The primary goal in these works is to attain earthly riches and worldly position; something which is utterly abhorred to Islamic mysticism.
- The next group includes works which following the prevalence of Modernity and the dominance of absolute positivism-relativism over epistemology of human life, endeavor to undermine the status quo and offer a favorable order in its stead. Among these works we can highlight didactic-mystical novels such as Somerset Maugham’s The Razor’s Edge, Hermann Hesse’s Siddhartha, Jostein Gaarder’s Sophie’s World, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’ The Little Prince, Mitch Albom’s Tuesdays with Morrie and Richard Bach’s Jonathan Livingston Seagull. The major features of these works are:
- Going through past and present in order to fathom the meaning of life: modern world is unable to tackle its spiritual crises due to overrating reason and too much dependence on technology and materialism.
- Critique of materialism: rationalism, scientism, humanism, individualism, secularism, and materialism are the most important tenets of Modern World.
- The role of love in life: loving is the root of eternity.
- Tranquility and satisfaction: one of the lost elements of the modern person’s life is peace of mind and equilibrium and this has led to her/his anxiety and distress which in its own turn is the reason why psychologists and sociologists consider it the main psychological disorder of our time. In spite of all industrial advancements, a human being who has lost her/his connection to the nature, universe, and essence of being is bewildered and distraught. S/he tries to entertain oneself with friendship, love, satisfying her carnal needs, enjoying oneself and having fun, etc. so that s/he can find tranquility but her/his existential anxiety remains in place and is not gone.
- Thinking about death: one of the main mythological and religious issues in the mankind’s life throughout history has been the question of death. Fearing death, some (materialists) deem it to be the end of life. In mysticism, however, death is not the end of life but is the beginning of the eternal life of human soul.
Mehdi Dadkhah Tehrani,
Volume 15, Issue 57 (7-2022)
Volume 15, Issue 57 (7-2022)
Abstract
‘Resāle-ye- Irād” written by Mirza Fathali Akhundzadeh, Iranian intellectual of the Qajar period, essentially involves a fictional and critical dialogue between Reza Qoli Khan Hedayat and Akhundzadeh about the historical text of "Rawdhat al-Safāye-Nāseri" and some of its historiographical issues. Akhundzadeh strongly criticizes Hedayat’s approach and method of historiography. In this controversial dialogue, due to the fact that Reza Qholi Khan Hedayat is a poet, the misuse of his poems in the text, is the main topic of this debate.
Extended Abstract
Reza Qolikhan Hedayat, entitled Lalah Bashi, was a thirteenth-century writer, poet, and historian in Iran during the reigns of Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar. "Rawdhat al-Safa-ye-Naseri" is one of the most important histories of Qajar period. This historical book is actually called "Appendices to Rawdhat al-Safa", which is actually written in the following of the book "Rawdha al-Safa" by Khvandmir. ‘Resāle-ye- Irād” written by Mirza Fathali Akhundzadeh, Iranian intellectual of the Qajar period, essentially involves a fictional and critical dialogue between Rezaghili Khan Hedayat and Akhundzadeh about the historical text of "Rawdhat al-Safaye-Naseri" and some of its historiographical issues. Akhundzadeh strongly criticizes Hedayat’s approach and method of historiography. In this controversial dialogue, due to the fact that Reza Qholi Khan Hedayat is a poet, the misuse of his poems in Rodhat Al-Safa Naseri is the main topic of this debate. This controversial dialogue between Akhundzadeh and Hedayat in “Resāley-e Irād” is one of the most important polemical tensions in the history of literary criticism and historiography criticism in Iran. This article will show the internal possibilities of this generic debate in recognizing the foundations of Persian literary criticism and historical historiography criticism.
Extended Abstract
Reza Qolikhan Hedayat, entitled Lalah Bashi, was a thirteenth-century writer, poet, and historian in Iran during the reigns of Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar. "Rawdhat al-Safa-ye-Naseri" is one of the most important histories of Qajar period. This historical book is actually called "Appendices to Rawdhat al-Safa", which is actually written in the following of the book "Rawdha al-Safa" by Khvandmir. ‘Resāle-ye- Irād” written by Mirza Fathali Akhundzadeh, Iranian intellectual of the Qajar period, essentially involves a fictional and critical dialogue between Rezaghili Khan Hedayat and Akhundzadeh about the historical text of "Rawdhat al-Safaye-Naseri" and some of its historiographical issues. Akhundzadeh strongly criticizes Hedayat’s approach and method of historiography. In this controversial dialogue, due to the fact that Reza Qholi Khan Hedayat is a poet, the misuse of his poems in Rodhat Al-Safa Naseri is the main topic of this debate. This controversial dialogue between Akhundzadeh and Hedayat in “Resāley-e Irād” is one of the most important polemical tensions in the history of literary criticism and historiography criticism in Iran. This article will show the internal possibilities of this generic debate in recognizing the foundations of Persian literary criticism and historical historiography criticism.
Javad Sattari, Hassan Heidari, Mohsen Zolfghary, Mehrdad Akbari Gandomani,
Volume 15, Issue 57 (7-2022)
Volume 15, Issue 57 (7-2022)
Abstract
Ugliness, a philosophical concept, has been scrutinized throughout history from different vantage points. Some consider ugliness merely the lack of aesthetic, rejection of aesthetic, fundamental evil, valueless, and formless. At the same time, some believe that ugliness is the other side of the aesthetic coin, part of our existence that explicates new facets of our being. This study investigated the essential role of ugliness theory in literary studies within a systematic paradigm. The rhetorical and philosophical concept of beauty has been studied, and the reasons for the lack of ugliness studies in the literature have been investigated. Furthermore, the benefits and applications of studying ugliness theory have been delineated, and it has been applied to one poem of Hafez. Applying ugliness theory to one poem revealed that ghazals (short lyric poem) of Hafez are not inconsistent and incoherent, as has been claimed by some literary critics. The study has demonstrated consistency and coherence in ghazals of Hafez which necessitates using ugliness theory in the revision studies of literary works such as Hafez’s.
Extended Abstract
This study aims to provide a helpful solution to the aesthetic criticism of the text with a fresh approach. Despite the increasing interest in Hafez studies and the efforts of Hafez scholars, an array of approaches to interpreting Hafez lyric poetry remains understudied. Even though Hafez poetry and other Persian literary texts have been extensively studied, no analysis has been made of the philosophical concept of ugliness and its sub-branches. This study examines how Hafez uses literary tricks to highlight ugliness through the use of Karl Rosenkrantz's aesthetic theory of ugliness in a lyric.
The aesthetics of ugliness argues that ugly is defined by negating beauty, rather than by connecting it to any conventional concept associated with condemnation, such as evil or materialism. Rosankranz, like Walter Benjamin, emphasized the ugly nature of aesthetic canons and their active role in the metropolis. His collection of caricatures and popular prints is extensive. Living and teaching in Koenigsberg, Rosenkranz simultaneously reacted to and illuminated urban phenomena from afar. "Aesthetics of Ugliness", published four years before Baudelaire's Fleurs du Mal makes a significant contribution to both modernist experiments and the theory of beauty in the twenty-first century. First published in English, “Aesthetics of Ugliness” analyzes the concept of ugliness through modernist aesthetics and literature studies.
Rosencrantz's ugliness aesthetics theory was used to further explore the aesthetic aspects of Hafez poetry, and after applying and reviewing a lyric by Hafez, it was concluded that theory fits perfectly to analyze Hafez work. One of the most effective ways to express oneself is through literature. A ghazal, for example, was found to have a form and structure that are harmonious, despite its apparent incoherence, and the poet applies seemingly distant artistic structures to convey a single and coherent subject, as well as its beauty and ugliness. If the reader applies the cited theory and takes into consideration the identification of the single form present in each text, she or he will be unable to advocate personal opinions, but can instead present a theory based solely on the structure and texture of the text. Each text is analyzed according to this theory on four levels (form, style, inferiority, and ugliness). To achieve an objective examination of each text, the theory can be used as an efficient and appropriate tool to find its essence outside of the highlights and contradictory views of its artistic appearance. As a result, the reader is liberated from confusion.
This theory helps readers comprehend literary texts through the use of the form of each text and the explanation of the highlights. As a result, it provides theoretical and practical tools for the criticism of any text as well as qualitative criteria for measuring the quality of literary works.
It was found that by identifying precise relationships between contradictory and reciprocal artistic structures, one can gain a deeper understanding of the text's internal components and dark areas, which are demonstrated by the correlation of these contradictions and contrasts within the text's overall harmony and coherence. Because Hafez methods of using symmetry, contrast, contradiction, proportion, balance, humor, and ugliness create harmony and unity in the text, which finally reveals another aspect of Hafez artistic creations to the reader, the use of contradictions in the text paves the way for the emergence of a special artistic order that can in no way be regarded as incoherent or disturbing.
A theoretical analysis is provided in this article utilizing the library technique. In this examination, Hafez words and thoughts are examined from the standpoint of ugly aesthetic theory, which leads to a system of techniques and solutions for better understanding of literary texts. Among other artistic devices, the authors illustrate how the poet used comedy, absurdity, confrontation, and ambiguity to represent some of society's most unappealing aspects during this period.
Extended Abstract
This study aims to provide a helpful solution to the aesthetic criticism of the text with a fresh approach. Despite the increasing interest in Hafez studies and the efforts of Hafez scholars, an array of approaches to interpreting Hafez lyric poetry remains understudied. Even though Hafez poetry and other Persian literary texts have been extensively studied, no analysis has been made of the philosophical concept of ugliness and its sub-branches. This study examines how Hafez uses literary tricks to highlight ugliness through the use of Karl Rosenkrantz's aesthetic theory of ugliness in a lyric.
The aesthetics of ugliness argues that ugly is defined by negating beauty, rather than by connecting it to any conventional concept associated with condemnation, such as evil or materialism. Rosankranz, like Walter Benjamin, emphasized the ugly nature of aesthetic canons and their active role in the metropolis. His collection of caricatures and popular prints is extensive. Living and teaching in Koenigsberg, Rosenkranz simultaneously reacted to and illuminated urban phenomena from afar. "Aesthetics of Ugliness", published four years before Baudelaire's Fleurs du Mal makes a significant contribution to both modernist experiments and the theory of beauty in the twenty-first century. First published in English, “Aesthetics of Ugliness” analyzes the concept of ugliness through modernist aesthetics and literature studies.
Rosencrantz's ugliness aesthetics theory was used to further explore the aesthetic aspects of Hafez poetry, and after applying and reviewing a lyric by Hafez, it was concluded that theory fits perfectly to analyze Hafez work. One of the most effective ways to express oneself is through literature. A ghazal, for example, was found to have a form and structure that are harmonious, despite its apparent incoherence, and the poet applies seemingly distant artistic structures to convey a single and coherent subject, as well as its beauty and ugliness. If the reader applies the cited theory and takes into consideration the identification of the single form present in each text, she or he will be unable to advocate personal opinions, but can instead present a theory based solely on the structure and texture of the text. Each text is analyzed according to this theory on four levels (form, style, inferiority, and ugliness). To achieve an objective examination of each text, the theory can be used as an efficient and appropriate tool to find its essence outside of the highlights and contradictory views of its artistic appearance. As a result, the reader is liberated from confusion.
This theory helps readers comprehend literary texts through the use of the form of each text and the explanation of the highlights. As a result, it provides theoretical and practical tools for the criticism of any text as well as qualitative criteria for measuring the quality of literary works.
It was found that by identifying precise relationships between contradictory and reciprocal artistic structures, one can gain a deeper understanding of the text's internal components and dark areas, which are demonstrated by the correlation of these contradictions and contrasts within the text's overall harmony and coherence. Because Hafez methods of using symmetry, contrast, contradiction, proportion, balance, humor, and ugliness create harmony and unity in the text, which finally reveals another aspect of Hafez artistic creations to the reader, the use of contradictions in the text paves the way for the emergence of a special artistic order that can in no way be regarded as incoherent or disturbing.
A theoretical analysis is provided in this article utilizing the library technique. In this examination, Hafez words and thoughts are examined from the standpoint of ugly aesthetic theory, which leads to a system of techniques and solutions for better understanding of literary texts. Among other artistic devices, the authors illustrate how the poet used comedy, absurdity, confrontation, and ambiguity to represent some of society's most unappealing aspects during this period.
Mahmood Fotoohi Rudmajani,
Volume 15, Issue 60 (8-2022)
Volume 15, Issue 60 (8-2022)
Abstract
Poetry and philosophy: two producers of making truth
Ghodsieh Rezvanian, Jafar Rezapour,
Volume 16, Issue 62 (10-2023)
Volume 16, Issue 62 (10-2023)
Abstract
If we consider language not as a mirror reflecting struggles, but as the subject and tool of struggles, then we should use the signifier of discourse, which makes the concepts of power and language understandable in a continuous and inseparable conceptual entanglement. This article aims to analyze the text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi as one of the most influential classical texts of Persian literature with a discursive method. In other words, by placing this text in its discursive context and its dialectical relationship with power, and understanding this text as the field of conflict between powers and conflicting discourses of society, a new understanding of it can be achieved. In order to achieve this goal, Fairclough's critical discourse analysis method is used to perform micro-textual analysis, and Laclau and Mouffe's discourse theory is used to perform macro-discourse analysis of Bayhaghi era. The text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, as shown, does not reflect the true struggle, but itself, is part of the struggle process. This text is influenced by the chain of ruling discourses and is used against peripheral discourses. Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, under the influence of the discourse that pulls the bipolar mind of the text to a directional representation of the flow of affairs, highlights the ruling discourses and marginalizes the peripheral discourses.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Discourse is a special way of understanding the world, a special understanding and a special way of speaking that pushes other possible ways of understanding the world to the sidelines by highlighting itself. In fact, language - which is the common thread of all different discourses - is structured in the framework of formats that are governed by ideological disciplines. These structured formats - which are discourses - are fighting in an irreconcilable way to reach the hegemonic position in the whole society. If we consider language not as a mirror reflecting struggles, but as the subject and tool of struggles, then we should use the signifier of discourse, which makes the concepts of power and language understandable in a continuous and inseparable conceptual entanglement.
Methodology
This article aims to analyze the text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi as one of the most influential classical texts of Persian literature with a discursive method. In other words, by placing this text in its discursive context and its dialectical relationship with power, and understanding this text as the field of conflict between powers and conflicting discourses of society, a new understanding of it can be achieved. In order to achieve this goal, Fairclough's critical discourse analysis method is used to perform micro-textual analysis, and Laclau and Mouffe's discourse theory is used to perform macro-discourse analysis of Bayhaghi era. Due to the expanse of the text of the book, and the limitation of the article, only one theoretical topic (sermon) and two historical-fictional topics (the story of Afshin and Budolaf - and the nobles of Ray's response to Sultan Masoud) have been selected for analysis.
Discussion and conclusion
The sermon presents three parables comparing: the kingdom of Alexander and Ardashir Sassanid, the rise of the Ghaznavids, not having the privilege of the Iranian race, and comparing the hierarchy of the government structure with the human body, and in all three by justifying and giving priority to the Ghaznavid rulers, it marginalizes the competing discourse. In two historical-fictional stories, the story of Afshin and Budolaf, which has a very strong narrative aspect and is therefore very influential, has been chosen to explain the bipolar mentality and highlight Us and make Them alien. "Them" in this story is a racial alienation, which is indeed Afshin, the general of army of the Caliphate, but of Iranian race. In the story of the nobles of Ray's response to Sultan Masoud and their devotion to him, the fear and ingratitude of the people make the Ghaznavid rulers and Sunnid discourse stand out and marginalize Al-e Bouyeh rulers and Shia discourse.
The text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, as shown, does not reflect the true struggle, but itself, is part of the struggle process. This text is influenced by the chain of ruling discourses and is used against peripheral discourses. Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, under the influence of the discourse that pulls the bipolar mind of the text to a directional representation of the flow of affairs, highlights the ruling discourses and marginalizes the peripheral discourses.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Discourse is a special way of understanding the world, a special understanding and a special way of speaking that pushes other possible ways of understanding the world to the sidelines by highlighting itself. In fact, language - which is the common thread of all different discourses - is structured in the framework of formats that are governed by ideological disciplines. These structured formats - which are discourses - are fighting in an irreconcilable way to reach the hegemonic position in the whole society. If we consider language not as a mirror reflecting struggles, but as the subject and tool of struggles, then we should use the signifier of discourse, which makes the concepts of power and language understandable in a continuous and inseparable conceptual entanglement.
Methodology
This article aims to analyze the text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi as one of the most influential classical texts of Persian literature with a discursive method. In other words, by placing this text in its discursive context and its dialectical relationship with power, and understanding this text as the field of conflict between powers and conflicting discourses of society, a new understanding of it can be achieved. In order to achieve this goal, Fairclough's critical discourse analysis method is used to perform micro-textual analysis, and Laclau and Mouffe's discourse theory is used to perform macro-discourse analysis of Bayhaghi era. Due to the expanse of the text of the book, and the limitation of the article, only one theoretical topic (sermon) and two historical-fictional topics (the story of Afshin and Budolaf - and the nobles of Ray's response to Sultan Masoud) have been selected for analysis.
Discussion and conclusion
The sermon presents three parables comparing: the kingdom of Alexander and Ardashir Sassanid, the rise of the Ghaznavids, not having the privilege of the Iranian race, and comparing the hierarchy of the government structure with the human body, and in all three by justifying and giving priority to the Ghaznavid rulers, it marginalizes the competing discourse. In two historical-fictional stories, the story of Afshin and Budolaf, which has a very strong narrative aspect and is therefore very influential, has been chosen to explain the bipolar mentality and highlight Us and make Them alien. "Them" in this story is a racial alienation, which is indeed Afshin, the general of army of the Caliphate, but of Iranian race. In the story of the nobles of Ray's response to Sultan Masoud and their devotion to him, the fear and ingratitude of the people make the Ghaznavid rulers and Sunnid discourse stand out and marginalize Al-e Bouyeh rulers and Shia discourse.
The text of Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, as shown, does not reflect the true struggle, but itself, is part of the struggle process. This text is influenced by the chain of ruling discourses and is used against peripheral discourses. Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, under the influence of the discourse that pulls the bipolar mind of the text to a directional representation of the flow of affairs, highlights the ruling discourses and marginalizes the peripheral discourses.
Gholamreza Pirouz,
Volume 16, Issue 63 (12-2023)
Volume 16, Issue 63 (12-2023)
Abstract
Platonic discussions on the status of poetry have instigated long-lasting disputes between philosophy and poetry. Plato believed that compared to philosophy, poetry did not express the truth. Essentially, poetry could not access truth. It just lied and could, therefore, mislead. This approach resulted in poets' attempts to defend the nature of poetry for centuries; they changed poetry to a tool for expression of ethical, moral, and political concerns to maintain that even if poetry could not access truth, it could be useful in instructing people. Nonetheless, in the contemporary world where the nature of truth has been questioned and cast doubt on, Philosophy's defense of poetry has in fact led to a defense of the status of poetic ideology. Today, poetry, along with philosophy and science, is a medium to reflect a version of truth, a version which – like the truth of other media – is no more than a representation. In this research, I intend to examine Plato's ideas as well as the criticism of his ideology in recent decades; in addition, the approach of some Iranian researchers concerning the new modes of interaction between philosophy and poetry will be criticized to determine the relationship between poetry and philosophy with truth and to discuss the status of poetry in the contemporary world.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Scholars have always been concerned with the ever-changing relationship between poetry and philosophy, a trend which has been the result of various political, social, religious, and intellectual outlooks. In Iran, the interaction between philosophy and poetry and its various implications have not been subject to much critical scrutiny. This is while Iran’s poetic history is richer than that of any other country. Therefore, discussions of this kind can help shed light on the nature of poetry and the new perspectives toward it. Furthermore, establishing the interaction between poetry and philosophy can result in a better understanding of the nature of poetry, its status, and its function in the contemporary world.
Nowadays, the prevalent ideology supports the fact that poetry, along with philosophy, science, and other intellectual endeavors, is a medium in itself, a medium which – endowed by its beautifully expressive language and content – bestows upon us an understanding of the world around us. In other words, it makes the world a tolerable place to live in by reorganizing and redefining truth, and showing it depth to poetry lovers.
Whereas the discussions on poetry and philosophy are accompanied by precise epistemological outlooks in the contemporary world, in Iran the relationship between poetry and philosophy is approached mostly through the traditional lens: poetry as symbolizing emotion and imagination and philosophy as representing logic and reason. Nonetheless, in the contemporary world where the nature of truth has been questioned and cast doubt on, philosophy's defense of poetry has in fact led to a defense of the status of poetic ideology. Today, poetry, along with philosophy and science, is a medium to reflect a version of truth, a version which – like the truth of other media – is no more than a representation. In this research, I intend to examine Plato's ideas as well as the criticism of his ideology in recent decades; in addition, the approach of some Iranian researchers concerning the new modes of interaction between philosophy and poetry will be criticized to determine the relationship between poetry and philosophy with truth and to discuss the status of poetry in the contemporary world.
To provide a fresh outlook on poetry in the contemporary world, this study attempts to respond to the following questions: why was Plato against poetry and art? How do his logic and arguments cast doubt on today? What effects do these questions have on a new understanding of poetry? From what aspects can the epistemological relationship between poetry and philosophy be examined? Considering the new philosophical analysis of poetry, what status does poetry have in the contemporary world?
Conclusion and Findings
Different aspects of the recent interactions between poetry and philosophy have been mostly ignored by Iranian critics and intellectuals. It should, however, be noted that such interactions do not mean that poems are replete with philosophical content or philosophical pieces are structured as poetry. It rather includes much deeper and more challenging discussions which result in redefining poetry.
While most research on poetry in Iran approaches the relationship between poetry and philosophy by relying on a traditional viewpoint, it should be noted that both the definition of poetry and the viewpoint toward philosophy have dramatically changed in the contemporary world. Inclusion of contemporary thought in research on poetry and philosophy, therefore, becomes an important step in understanding the status of poetry and its function in the contemporary world. Today, philosophers challenge Plato’s utopia and indicate that a significant part of Plato’s discussion against poetry, poets, their exile, and the lack of urgency for existence of poetry have been mostly political. Indeed, the polyphonic nature of poetry and its being uncontrollable (like philosophy or math) in a systematic space like a utopia have not been deemed proper and have, hence, resulted in Plato’s defying and excluding poetry. Poetry is now a medium which redefines truth and returns it to the reader as a deeper entity. In terms of both the aesthetic structure and content, poetry is intertwined with the Anthropocene world and records the slightest intellectual, philosophical, cultural, or even scientific changes, moving hand in hand, and even faster than, human intellect.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Scholars have always been concerned with the ever-changing relationship between poetry and philosophy, a trend which has been the result of various political, social, religious, and intellectual outlooks. In Iran, the interaction between philosophy and poetry and its various implications have not been subject to much critical scrutiny. This is while Iran’s poetic history is richer than that of any other country. Therefore, discussions of this kind can help shed light on the nature of poetry and the new perspectives toward it. Furthermore, establishing the interaction between poetry and philosophy can result in a better understanding of the nature of poetry, its status, and its function in the contemporary world.
Nowadays, the prevalent ideology supports the fact that poetry, along with philosophy, science, and other intellectual endeavors, is a medium in itself, a medium which – endowed by its beautifully expressive language and content – bestows upon us an understanding of the world around us. In other words, it makes the world a tolerable place to live in by reorganizing and redefining truth, and showing it depth to poetry lovers.
Whereas the discussions on poetry and philosophy are accompanied by precise epistemological outlooks in the contemporary world, in Iran the relationship between poetry and philosophy is approached mostly through the traditional lens: poetry as symbolizing emotion and imagination and philosophy as representing logic and reason. Nonetheless, in the contemporary world where the nature of truth has been questioned and cast doubt on, philosophy's defense of poetry has in fact led to a defense of the status of poetic ideology. Today, poetry, along with philosophy and science, is a medium to reflect a version of truth, a version which – like the truth of other media – is no more than a representation. In this research, I intend to examine Plato's ideas as well as the criticism of his ideology in recent decades; in addition, the approach of some Iranian researchers concerning the new modes of interaction between philosophy and poetry will be criticized to determine the relationship between poetry and philosophy with truth and to discuss the status of poetry in the contemporary world.
To provide a fresh outlook on poetry in the contemporary world, this study attempts to respond to the following questions: why was Plato against poetry and art? How do his logic and arguments cast doubt on today? What effects do these questions have on a new understanding of poetry? From what aspects can the epistemological relationship between poetry and philosophy be examined? Considering the new philosophical analysis of poetry, what status does poetry have in the contemporary world?
Conclusion and Findings
Different aspects of the recent interactions between poetry and philosophy have been mostly ignored by Iranian critics and intellectuals. It should, however, be noted that such interactions do not mean that poems are replete with philosophical content or philosophical pieces are structured as poetry. It rather includes much deeper and more challenging discussions which result in redefining poetry.
While most research on poetry in Iran approaches the relationship between poetry and philosophy by relying on a traditional viewpoint, it should be noted that both the definition of poetry and the viewpoint toward philosophy have dramatically changed in the contemporary world. Inclusion of contemporary thought in research on poetry and philosophy, therefore, becomes an important step in understanding the status of poetry and its function in the contemporary world. Today, philosophers challenge Plato’s utopia and indicate that a significant part of Plato’s discussion against poetry, poets, their exile, and the lack of urgency for existence of poetry have been mostly political. Indeed, the polyphonic nature of poetry and its being uncontrollable (like philosophy or math) in a systematic space like a utopia have not been deemed proper and have, hence, resulted in Plato’s defying and excluding poetry. Poetry is now a medium which redefines truth and returns it to the reader as a deeper entity. In terms of both the aesthetic structure and content, poetry is intertwined with the Anthropocene world and records the slightest intellectual, philosophical, cultural, or even scientific changes, moving hand in hand, and even faster than, human intellect.
Haleh Kiany,
Volume 16, Issue 63 (12-2023)
Volume 16, Issue 63 (12-2023)
Abstract
The discipline of literature in the prestigious universities of the world is progressing with up-to-date and practical topics. In the new era, the university has become an entrepreneurial institution that focuses on the production of thought, innovation, idea-centeredness and creativity, the use of interdisciplinary capacities and having thinking in interaction with the world. Meanwhile, the academic field of literature in many advanced universities is trying to address the new approaches of university, a topic that is reflected in the study of literature topics in this university. Nevertheless, these universities continue to seek greater academic legitimacy. The debates that began 150 years ago in areas such as the definition of literature as an academic discipline and the scientific nature of literary research are still ongoing. Stein Haugham Olsen is a professor of English literature and the author of many books and articles in world-renowned journals on the philosophy of literature, literary aesthetics, and so on. In this article, he seeks to examine the evolution of "literary studies" and traces this discussion from the discussions that began in the 1880s at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the academic nature of literature and literary criticism to recent decades. Olsen's article emphasizes that literary studies, if it seeks to discover the meaning of literary works, to obtain that meaning in any way with any theory, is ultimately what any good reader can do.
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