Classical Prose Texts as One of the Subtexts of New Ghazal

Within the underlying structure of contemporary ghazal, numerous latent texts can be identified, most of which are rooted in classical poetry—particularly the ghazals of prominent poets from the Iraqi and Indian styles as well as other historical periods. However, closer and more critical examination reveals additional hidden subtexts, among which classical prose texts constitute some of the most significant. Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the intertextual relationships and interactions between the “modern ghazal” and major works of “classical” prose. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical method, drawing upon the theories and perspectives of major intertextuality theorists as well as existing approaches within Persian rhetoric. The findings indicate that poets of the modern ghazal movement have drawn upon the capacities of classical prose through the establishment of both explicit and implicit intertextual connections. These include direct and indirect quotation, references to authors’ names, book titles, characters, significant events, allusions, and, at times, a combination of multiple intertextual elements. Such interactions serve various purposes and functions, including the creation of a dialogue between the modern and the traditional, the introduction of polyphony into the poem, concision and economy of expression, the establishment of authority and textual legitimation, the utilization of classical sources to articulate contemporary experiences, the generation of dynamism and multiplicity of meaning, and the demonstration of the poet’s cultural and scholarly background.
Extended Abstract
1. Introduction
Contemporary Persian literature has consistently maintained a dynamic interaction with classical literature. Whenever such interactions have been accompanied by a fresh perspective and creative reconfiguration, they have contributed to the enrichment of contemporary literary production. Naturally, contemporary poetry demonstrates a stronger engagement with classical poetry, as in discussions of genre interaction, poets and writers tend to show greater inclination toward engaging with their corresponding genres. Consequently, many archetypes of each genre are reproduced in later periods in the form of traditions, conventions, or intertextual patterns. In examining the relationship between the ghazal and other texts, scholarly attention is typically directed toward the ghazals of earlier periods. This tendency arises because each poetic form and genre, due to its thematic, imagistic, linguistic, and broader discursive affinities, operates within a relatively defined framework. As a result, identifying intertextual relations within homologous genres is both more frequent and comparatively more accessible. Prose and poetry, however, represent two distinct literary modes; therefore, the degree of similarity and mutual influence between them is generally more limited. Nevertheless, close attention to the deep structure of poetic texts may reveal concealed underlying layers, including prose-based substructures. Taking these considerations into account, the central objective of the present study is to examine and demonstrate the connections and intertextual interactions between the modern ghazal and classical prose texts. In this study, the term subtext (genotext) refers to influential prior texts that contribute to the formation of subsequent works, such that their themes and contents are transmitted—either directly or through transformation—into later texts. Some of these intertextual connections are relatively explicit, while others require deeper analytical engagement, and their identification largely depends on the reader’s level of knowledge and familiarity with the literary tradition.

2. Methodology
One of the central issues in the study of literary texts, from the past to the present, has been the interaction among texts and the exchanges that occur between them. In traditional literary studies, such interactions have been examined under rhetorical devices and categories such as allusion, inclusion, adaptation, coincidence, and quotation. In the modern era, with the expansion of new literary theories and critical approaches, the discussion of textual interaction has been raised and developed in a broader and more systematic manner. Theories such as intertextuality and transtextuality are among the outcomes of these developments. A wide range of scholars have contributed to the formation of these theoretical frameworks, among whom figures such as Mikhail Bakhtin, Ferdinand de Saussure, Julia Kristeva, Roland Barthes, Laurent Jenny, Michael Riffaterre, Gérard Genette, and Harold Bloom have played particularly prominent roles. Each of these theorists has approached the phenomenon of textual interaction from a distinct perspective, to the extent that the diversity and multiplicity within intertextual studies sometimes lead to theoretical tensions and even contradictions (Namvar Motlagh, 2011: 118). Therefore, despite the usefulness of these theories and the many insights they have provided into the dynamics of textual interaction, relying exclusively on a single theoretical approach or the views of one theorist is insufficient for a comprehensive analysis. At the same time, attempting to apply all approaches simultaneously is neither practical nor methodologically effective. Accordingly, in the present study, the general framework and design are based on Gérard Genette’s typology of intertextuality. However, in the analytical sections, insights from other theorists, as well as approaches rooted in Persian rhetorical tradition, have also been taken into consideration, since the ultimate aim of all these perspectives is to elucidate the interactions among texts.

3. Discussion and Analysis
The intertextual interactions between the ghazal of this period and prose texts have been analyzed and examined across the following categories, supported by numerous examples:

1. Implicit (Covert) Intertextuality

Reference to a classical narrative

2. Explicit (Overt) Intertextuality

Quotation
Direct quotation from classical narrative texts
Indirect quotation from classical texts

3. Reference

Reference to the author’s name accompanied by quotation
Reference to the names of fictional characters accompanied by quotation
Reference to classical fictional characters and events associated with them
Reference to the titles of prose works with implicit allusions to their themes or contents
Reference to the titles of prose works alongside their prominent characters


4. Conclusion
The interaction and interconnection among texts have existed across all historical periods, with poets and writers engaging in intertextual relations with preceding or contemporary texts for various purposes. Poets of the modern ghazal movement, likewise, have, in a number of their works, drawn attention to major classical prose texts and have utilized the narrative and thematic capacities of these works—particularly their anecdotes and stories—in their poetic creations. The reflection of such texts in the contemporary literary sphere underscores both their enduring significance and the appeal of their narrative techniques. Attention to these texts is influenced by a range of factors and conditions, including the incorporation of some of these narratives into educational curricula, the focus of scholars and the literary community on particular works and their canonization, as well as the intrinsic literary qualities of the stories themselves. For instance, the considerable attention paid to the story of Hasanak the Vazier, in addition to its narrative richness and aesthetic qualities, may also be attributed to the fact that excerpts of this story were included in school textbooks for many years, thereby familiarizing young poets with it from their early education. According to the findings of this study, ghazal poets have engaged most frequently, in descending order, with Golestan of Sadi, Hezaro yek shab, Tarikh-e Bayhaqi, Kalila and Dimna, and Tazkirat al-Awliya. Other works have appeared less frequently, with only one or two instances of intertextual engagement, as discussed in the main body of the article. These intertextual relations sometimes appear explicitly, while at other times they are embedded within the deeper, implicit layers of the ghazal. The purposes behind establishing such intertextual connections in contemporary ghazal include expanding and diversifying the semantic system of the text, creating a dialogic relationship with classical works, reconfiguring and reimagining traditional narratives, enhancing the dynamism and vitality of the text, achieving concision in the expression of meaning, generating aesthetic pleasure, and ultimately demonstrating the poet’s cultural and intellectual grounding. These aims are closely aligned with the objectives and perspectives articulated by major theorists of intertextuality regarding such textual relationships.