دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 A Ṣadrian Reading of the Motif of Line in the Ghazals of Ṣāʾib Tabrīzī خوانش صدرایی از موتیو خط در غزلیات صائب تبریزی (مطالعۀ تطبیقی موتیو خط در غزلیات صائب با اندیشه‌های صدرالمتألهین درخصوص ماهیت قرآن) 1 36 27552 10.48311/lcq.2025.27552 FA نرگس اسکویی دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، واحد بناب، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، بناب، ایران 0000-0003-2991-1038 Journal Article 2025 03 05 In a Ṣadrian reading of the motif of khaṭṭ [line] in the ghazals of Ṣāʾib Tabrīzī, the line is not merely an aesthetic or calligraphic element, but rather a transcendent symbol of ontological gradation and the metaphysical relationship between the human being sand the Qur’an. The findings of this study reveal that Ṣāʾib transcends the literary conventions of earlier periods by drawing upon the conceptual framework of ḥikmat-e motaʿālīya [Transcendent Theosophy] and offers an ontological reinterpretation of this motif. In this paradigm, the line is no longer just an instrument of writing or an image of beauty; it is a multi-layered being, descending from the realm of intellect (ʿaql) to the corporeal world, bearing the imprint of divine names and the manifestation of the Muḥammadan Reality (ḥaqīqat-e Muḥammadiyya). Among the most significant conclusions of this research is the deep metaphysical connection between the line and the Qur’an—as the divine word—and the Perfect Human—as the embodied expression of that word. In Ṣāʾib’s ghazals, the line is portrayed not only as a mirror of beauty and a bearer of hidden messages, but also as ontologically united with the Qur’an, the calligrapher, and the figure of divine beauty. The interplay of key Ṣadrian concepts—such as tajallī [theophany], ṣudūr [emanation], the union of knower and known, and the fourfold degrees of being—with the motif of line suggests that Ṣāʾib conceives of the line as a microcosmic reflection of the Book of Being, a divine sign (āyat Allāh), and a trace of transcendent presence. Thus, his ghazals become a contemplative space for exploring the unity of beauty, revelation, and existence—a unity in which the line emerges as both symbolic exegesis of the Qur’an and the visible embodiment of the Active Intellect. Introduction The Persian lyric tradition has long endowed khaṭṭ [calligraphic line] with aesthetic and symbolic value, yet in the seventeenth‑century Indo‑Persian style of Ṣāʾib Tabrīzī (d. 1086/1675) the motif acquires an unprecedented philosophical density. Building on the conceptual edifice of Mullā Ṣadrā’s ḥikmat‑i mutaʿāliyya (Transcendent Theosophy, 1050/1640), Ṣāʾib reconfigures khaṭṭ as a multi‑layered emblem that mediates the descent of the Qur’anic Word into the sensible realm and its reflex in the Perfect Human. This study situates Ṣāʾib’s poetics at the intersection of literary motif theory and Ṣadrian ontology, arguing that the line in his ghazals functions simultaneously as: (1) a visual‐acoustic trace of divine speech, (2) a condensed map of cosmic gradation, and (3) a hermeneutic key that unlocks the unity of beauty (jamāl), revelation (waḥy) and being (wujūd). Methodology The research adopts a comparative, hermeneutic method in three stages. Textual Corpus Construction: 312 instances of the khaṭṭ motif were extracted from the six critical volumes of Ṣāʾib’s Dīvān edited by Moḥammad Qahramān. Philosophical Lens: Mullā Ṣadrā’s primary works—al‑Asfār al‑arbaʿa, Tafsīr al‑Qur’an al‑karīm and Asrār al‑āyāt—were thematically indexed to isolate concepts of emanation (ṣudūr), theophany (tajallī), the union of knower and known, and the four degrees of being. Motif Mapping: Through qualitative content analysis, the poetic occurrences were aligned with the Ṣadrian concepts, enabling a bidirectional dialogue between poetic image and philosophical doctrine. Reliability was ensured by double coding, and validity through triangulation with earlier motif studies (Esmāʿīlī 2014; Dehqān & Taqavī 2009). Discussion Ontological Stratification of Line – Ṣāʾib’s lexicon links the physical trace of ink to a descending arc that mirrors Ṣadrā’s schema of al‑ʿālam al‑ʿaqlī [intellect], al‑nafsī [soul], al‑mithālī [imaginal] and al‑māddī [corporeal]. The line is said to “plunge from emerald tablet to dusty page,” echoing the Qur’an’s own journey from the Preserved Tablet (lawḥ‑i maḥfūẓ) to articulate revelation. Line–Qur’an–Perfect Human Nexus – The motif of khaṭṭ establishes an ontological union in which the calligrapher, as a manifestation of the Perfect Human, embodies the essence of the Qur’an, and the written line serves as its outward hypostasis. This unity is grounded in Ṣadrā’s doctrine of the inseparability of form and meaning, wherein corporeal expression and metaphysical content coalesce seamlessly. Semantic Polarity and Hermeneutic Depth – Ṣāʾib emphasizes the paradoxical nature of khaṭṭ, which simultaneously discloses and conceals. While its sensory form appeals to the superficial gaze, its esoteric dimension demands a deeper unveiling (kashf). This duality mirrors the Qur’anic interplay of ẓāhir and bāṭin and resonates with Ṣadrā’s dialectic of manifestation and concealment in ontological terms. Motif as Epistemic Medium – The poet expands the repertoire of Qur’anic calligraphy into cosmology: “ink” becomes primordial matter, “pen” the Active Intellect, “paper” the substratum of contingent being. Thus, the line is not decoration but ontic narration; it writes the world into existence. Findings Philosophical Transcoding: Ṣāʾib transposes abstract Ṣadrian doctrines into imagistic language, enabling lay access to metaphysical truths. Motif Re‑signification: The traditional Persian topos of the beloved’s hair‑line evolves into a vehicle for explicating emanation and return; khaṭṭ is promoted from ornamental sign to hierophany. Dialogic Intertextuality: Poetic allusions to Qur’anic phrases (e.g., nūn wa’l‑qalam) reveal an intertextual network whereby Ṣāʾib comments on scripture through metaphor, while Ṣadrā’s exegesis retroactively validates the poet’s imagery. Exegetical Model: The study proposes a four‑step reading protocol—motif identification, Ṣadrian mapping, Qur’anic echo detection, and hermeneutic synthesis—that can be transferred to other Persian motifs (rose, mirror, garden). Conclusion By fusing Indo‑Persian poetics with Transcendent Theosophy, Ṣāʾib Tabrīzī reconceives the motif of line as a palimpsest where aesthetics, ontology and revelation converge. The khaṭṭ in his ghazals dramatizes the descent of the Qur’anic Word, the ascent of human cognition, and the perpetual dance between seen and unseen. This synergy transcends ornamental convention, granting the motif epistemic authority and theological resonance. Consequently, Ṣāʾib’s oeuvre offers a paradigmatic case of how literary creativity can operationalize complex metaphysics, positioning the poet as both scribe and seer. Future research may apply the same hermeneutic apparatus to Safavid visual arts, where calligraphy likewise mediates doctrinal subtleties. References Dehqan, E., & Taqavi, M. (2009). What is a motif and how is it formed? Naqd‑e Adabī, 2(8), 7–31. [In Persian] Esmaʿili, E. (2014). Comparative study of the motif of line in Naẓīrī’s Dīvān and Ṣāʾib’s ghazals. Motāleʿāt‑e Zabānī va Balāghī, 9, 7–28. [In Persian] در خوانش صدرایی از موتیو خط در غزلیات صائب تبریزی، خط نه صرفاً عنصری زیباشناختی و خوش‌نویسانه، بلکه تمثیلی متعالی از مراتب وجودی هستی و نسبت انسان و قرآن تلقی می‌شود. یافته‌های این مقاله نشان می‌دهد که صائب در کاربست موتیو خط، از سنت ادبی پیش از خود فراتر رفته و با بهره‌گیری از دستگاه مفهومی حکمت متعالیه، به بازخوانی هستی‌شناسانۀ آن دست زده است. در این رویکرد، خط صرفاً ابزار کتابت یا جلوۀ حسن نیست، بلکه موجودی است ذومراتب که در سیر نزولی خویش از عالم عقل به عالم ماده، شأنی از مظاهر اسمای الهی و تجلی حقیقت محمدیه را به همراه دارد. در این میان، نسبت خط با قرآن ـ به‌عنوان کلام حق ـ و با انسان کامل ـ به‌عنوان تجسد عینی آن کلام ـ یکی از بنیادی‌ترین نتایج پژوهش حاضر است؛ چنان‌که در غزلیات صائب، خط نه‌تنها آینۀ جمال و حامل پیام غیب، بلکه ذاتاً متحد با مصحف، صاحب خط، و صاحب جمال تلقی می‌شود. تحلیل هم‌نشینی مفاهیم صدرایی همچون تجلی، صدور، اتحاد عاقل و معقول، و مراتب چهارگانۀ وجود در کنار موتیو خط، نشان می‌دهد که صائب در منظومۀ فکری خود، خط را به مصداقی از کتاب وجود، آیت‌الله و نشانۀ حضور الهی تبدیل کرده است. بدین‌سان، غزلیات او مجالی می‌شود برای تأملی تازه در باب اتحاد زیبایی، وحی و وجود؛ اتحادی که در آن، خط به‌منزلۀ تفسیر رمزی قرآن و تجسم عینی عقل فعال جلوه‌گر می‌شود.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27552_2af9b1a840b4ecd522fe1cda88c8385e.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Representation of Constitutional Events in Contemporary Persian Novel from the Perspective of Alternative History Approach بازنمایی رویدادهای مشروطه در رمان معاصر فارسی از منظر رویکرد تاریخ جایگزین 37 96 27549 10.48311/lcq.2025.27549 FA قدرت قاسمی پور استاد زبان و ادبیات فارسی دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز قدرت الله ضرونی استادیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز 0000-0003-2132-5042 صدیقه پاک ضمیر دانشجوی دکتری زبان و ادبیات فارسی دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز 0009-0004-2664-8320 Journal Article 2025 01 05 The Constitutional Revolution, along with its preceding events and aftermath, has long served as an inspiration for numerous literary works. Contemporary Persian novels have also been influenced by this pivotal historical period, with writers interpreting it based on their knowledge, creativity, and ideological perspectives. This study focuses on a select group of Persian historical novels that use the Constitutional events—particularly the bombardment of the parliament—as the primary narrative setting. The purpose of this article is to explore how these events are represented through the lens of Alternate History in three novels: Khandeh-ye-Khorshid, Ashk-e Mah [The Laughter of the Sun, the Tear of the Moon], Talar-e Aeeneh [Hall of Mirrors], and Bi-ketabi [Booklessness]. Findings reveal that the authors of these works have employed the relatively new approach of Alternate History to craft their narratives. In this approach, the writer redirects the course of actual history from a crucial turning point toward an imagined outcome. In the three mentioned novels, each author selects a significant event from the Constitutional era as a historical pivot, but then constructs alternative events and consequences around it—constituting an alternate historical narrative. In Khandeh-ye-Khorshid, Ashk-e Mah and Bi-ketabi, the bombardment of the parliament serves as the central historical turning point. In The Talar-e Aeeneh, the protests on the 19th of Tir (July 10) and the martyrdom of Seyyed Abdulhamid—the first martyr of the Constitutional Movement—constitute the pivotal moment, whose consequences, including the subsequent bombardment of the parliament, drastically alter the fate of the novel’s protagonist. It appears that one of the authors’ main objectives in adopting this approach is, on the one hand, to describe and remind readers of the consequences of Constitutional events and their impact on the lives of ordinary people, and on the other hand, to draw attention to the historical realities of this period. By critiquing the historical memory of modern Iranian individuals and emphasizing the reexamination of past experiences, the authors aim to shape a renewed intellectual and idealistic trajectory for society. Introduction In contemporary Iranian fiction, a specific genre known as Alternate History has emerged, which seeks to critically re-examine the past by rewriting historical events and creating hypothetical trajectories divergent from the official historical record. This study investigates three Iranian novels that employ this approach: Khandeh-ye Khorshid, Ashk-e Mah [The Laughter of the Sun, the Tear of the Moon] by Reza Jolaei, Talar-e Aeeneh [Hall of Mirrors] by Amirhasan Cheheltan, and Bi-ketabi [Booklessness] by Mohammadreza Sharafi-Khaboshan. All three novels center on the Constitutional Revolution and reimagine its political and social events through the lens of alternate history. Research Objectives This research aims to analyze how the key elements of alternate history—namely the Juncture Point, Scenario/Plot, and Timeline—are utilized in these literary works. The primary goal is to demonstrate how the authors use these narrative tools to reconstruct the past and generate alternative historical narratives, while pursuing critical, social, or cultural objectives. Methodology The study employs a qualitative, structural analysis with a focus on narratological and historiographical criticism. The data consists of the full texts of the novels, examined through descriptive-analytical methods informed by theories of alternate history, narrative criticism, and literary historiography. The analysis encompasses not only narrative elements but also dimensions such as tone, narrative perspective, temporal structure, and the intersection between factual history and fictional storytelling. <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: ''Times New Roman'',serif; mso-fareast-font-family: ''Times New Roman''; color: #222222; background: white; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> Analysis and Findings In Khandeh-ye Khorshid, Ashk-e Mah, the historical juncture is the bombardment of the parliament, with the introduction of two secondary characters linked to the jewels “Khandeh-ye Khorshid” and “Ashk-e Mah”, which directs the narrative towards a new historical path. The novel features a complex, nonlinear structure. Shifting narrators in each chapter, diverse textual formats (telegram, memoir, document, letter, monologue), and frequent temporal jumps provide the reader with a multilayered narrative experience. The timeline is designed with parallel and sometimes conflicting branches, reflecting a polyphonic view of history. A notable critique of this novel is the blurred boundary between historical fact and fictional narrative, which may challenge the reader’s ability to distinguish between historical documentation and imaginative storytelling. In Talar-e Aeeneh, the pivotal historical event is the death of Seyyed Abdolhamid on July 10, 1906, who is regarded as the first martyr of the Constitutional Revolution. This novel presents a coherent plot with causal relationships, a fixed omniscient narrator, linear chronology, and explicit analyses by narrators and characters. Thus, the alternate history here appears as a realistic extension of official history. The author emphasizes women’s participation in the revolution, especially from both affluent and lower classes, shaping the timeline around gender demands. The alternate history technique in this work relies on altering historical causes and factors without distorting events. The author attempts to revive a neglected narrative of the revolution by highlighting women’s roles. In Bi-ketabi, the juncture is also the bombardment of the parliament, but the story unfolds through the first-person perspective of Mirza Yaghoub, a mercenary book dealer motivated solely by profit and indifferent to revolutionary ideals. Its plot is simpler than the other two novels; however, the narrator’s psychological and inner structure, recurrent flashbacks, and internal dialogues create a more intricate timeline. A unique feature is the symbolic character of the stepfather, who serves as a historical analyst and a figure of caution. The novel concludes with a change in the fate of the historical figure Lesān al-Dowleh, symbolizing the fall of tyranny. Similar to the first novel, the frequent quotations from ancient texts occasionally blur the distinction between historical reality and fiction for the reader. Conclusion The findings indicate that these three novels employ three distinct approaches to alternate history: Changing the purpose of historical events (Khandeh-ye Khorshid, Ashk-e Mah) Altering causes and historical factors (Talar-e Aeeneh) Modifying the fate of historical figures (Bi-ketabi) Overall, the alternate history approach in these works functions as a tool for idealistic vision, critique of the status quo, historical reconstruction, rethinking collective memory, and envisioning alternative historical possibilities. A prominent feature is the emphasis on ordinary people—especially women and the marginalized—in the historical narrative, aiming to offer an unofficial and polyphonic perspective of the past. <span dir="RTL" lang="FA" style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: ''B Lotus''; mso-ascii-font-family: ''Times New Roman''; mso-fareast-font-family: ''MS Mincho''; mso-hansi-font-family: ''Times New Roman''; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;">انقلاب مشروطه و رویدادهای پیش از آن و نیز پیامدهایش<span lang="FA" style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: ''Times New Roman'',serif; mso-fareast-font-family: ''MS Mincho''; mso-bidi-font-family: ''B Lotus''; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> <span dir="RTL" lang="FA" style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: ''B Lotus''; mso-ascii-font-family: ''Times New Roman''; mso-fareast-font-family: ''MS Mincho''; mso-hansi-font-family: ''Times New Roman''; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;">دست‌مایۀ آثار ادبی فراوانی بوده ‌است. رمان معاصر فارسی نیز از این تأثیرپذیری، بی‏بهره نمانده و رمان‏نویسان به فراخور دانش و ذوق و دیدگاه خویش، بدان پرداخته‏اند. در این پژوهش از میان رمان‏های تاریخی فارسی، رمان‏هایی مدنظر ماست که رخدادهای مشروطه و به‌طور مشخص واقعۀ به توپ بستن مجلس را بستر اصلی داستان قرار داده‏اند. هدف از نگارش این مقاله، بررسی بازنمایی رویدادهای مشروطه در سه رمان خندۀ خورشید اشک ماه، تالار آیینه و بی‏کتابی از منظر رویکرد تاریخ جایگزین است. یافته‏های مقاله نشان می‏دهد که نویسندگان آثار یادشده، برای نوشتن رمان از رویکردی تازه به نام «تاریخ جایگزین» استفاده کرده‏اند. در این رویکرد، نویسنده مسیر تاریخ واقعی را از نقطه‏ای مهم به سوی آنچه در ذهن خود از تاریخ انتظار داشته، سوق می‏دهد. نویسندگان در سه رمان نام‌برده، یکی از رویدادهای مشروطه را به‌عنوان بزنگاه تاریخی در نظر گرفته، اما در ادامه، ماجراهایی متفاوت، دربارۀ آن بزنگاه و پیامدهای آن در داستان آورده‏اند که از آن به تاریخ جایگزین تعبیر می‏شود. در دو رمان خندۀ خورشید، اشک ماه و بی‏کتابی رویداد به توپ بستن مجلس به‌عنوان نقطۀ عطف انتخاب شده و در رمان تالار آیینه اعتراضات روز نوزدهم تیرماه و به شهادت رسیدن سیدعبدالحمید اولین شهید مشروطه نقطۀ عطف است و پیامد آن در به توپ بستن مجلس، سرنوشت شخصیت اصلی رمان را دگرگون می‏کند. به‌نظر می‏رسد ازجمله مهم‏ترین اهداف نویسندگان از گزینش این رویکرد آن است که از یک سو به توصیف و یادآوری پیامدهای رخدادهای مشروطه و تأثیر آن بر زندگی مردم عادی بپردازند و از سوی دیگر توجه مخاطب را به حقایق این دوره از تاریخ معاصر جلب کنند و با انتقاد از حافظۀ تاریخی انسان معاصر ایرانی و تأکید بر بازخوانی تجربه‏های تاریخی، به مسیر آرمان‏خواهی و اندیشگانی جامعه شکل دهند.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27549_8d5ef74b92de0025e0a30d21d4714152.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Analysis of the Poems of Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, Forough Farrokhzad, and Simin Behbahani based on Bakhtinian Dialogic Logic[1] [1]. This article is taken from the Ph.D. thesis of the author which was carried out in the Faculty of Literature and Foreign Language in Azad University, Karaj under the supervision of Dr. Zahra Dorri. بررسی اشعار ژاله قائم‌مقامی، فروغ فرخزاد و سیمین بهبهانی براساس منطق گفت‌و‌گویی باختین 97 132 27547 10.48311/lcq.2025.27547 FA زیبا پالیزبان گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، واحد کرج، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی کرج، ایران 0009-0000-2067-0384 زهرا دری گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، واحد کرج، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی کرج، ایران 0000-0002-8669-7974 ماه نظری گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، واحد کرج، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی کرج، ایران 0000-0002-7302-3364 آذر دانشگر گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، واحد کرج، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی کرج، ایران 0000-0001-9048-4325 Journal Article 2024 10 22 Mikhail Bakhtin's theory of polyphony offers a theoretical framework for analyzing literary texts and discourses that can enhance our understanding of poems written by women from the Qajar era to the Islamic Revolution. This theory stands opposed to monological theories, which take into account only one voice as dominant. Bakhtin believes that literary texts consist of different and sometimes opposite voices that have interactions and relationships. These voices may include the voice of the author, the narrator, the characters, and even the reader. Accordingly, this article attempts to investigate and analyze the poems of three Iranian female poets, namely Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, Forough Farrokhzad, and Simin Behbahani based on Bakhtin's theory of polyphony and dialogism. This article shows that, despite their differences, the poems of these Iranian women have common characteristics that unite them within a literary current. Such characteristics mirror impressions from previous works, a tendency to create a dialogue with future audiences and a focus on social and human issues. Using qualitative content analysis, this research interprets and examines these works, offering a new perspective on the status of women’s poetry in Iran’s contemporary literature. Eventually, the comparative analysis of the works of these poets shows that each of them has created a polyphonic atmosphere in her poems through linguistic and structural methods. This polyphonic atmosphere stems from the interaction of different voices that exist in their poems and give them depth and complexity. Introduction From the Qajar era to the Islamic Revolution was a tumultuous period in the history of Iran that encompassed deep social, political, and cultural developments. These developments exerted a profound influence on women’s poetry. At the beginning of the Qajar era, the majority of female poets came from noble families and courtly circles, and their poems were mostly about eulogizing princes and members of the royal court. The recurring themes of these poems were love, estrangement, mysticism, and moral concerns. As relations between Iran and the West expanded, new ideas gradually entered Iranian society, and this shift was reflected in women’s poetry. Increasingly literate women began to express their experiences and feelings and to address political and social issues. Dramatic political and social developments, the advancement of women’s literacy and educational attainment, and the expansion of Iran-West relations were among the contributing factors in women poetry. In the women’s poetry from Qajar era to the Islamic Revolution, we are witnessing the countless voices that narrate women’s different experiences and perspectives. This plurality of voices not only includes the voice of a woman who writes about love and estrangement like Forough Farrokhzad, but also a woman who laments oppression and social suffering like Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, and also a woman who seeks independence and identity like Simin Behbahani. This plurality of voices leads us to a feminist-oriented study through the lens of Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony. Theoretical Framework and Methodology The theory of polyphony developed by Mikhail Bakhtin—Russian philosopher and literary critic—provides the theoretical framework for analyzing literature and discourse that helps us gain a better understanding of women’s poetry from Qajar era to the Islamic Revolution. Based on this theory, literary texts should not be limited to a single voice —what Bakhtin terms monophony—but should instead consider an array of various voices which interact with one another. Using a feminist application of Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony, we can understand these voices as a reflection of different experiences and perspective of women in the Iranian society. This approach helps us interpret women’s poetry from this period as intricate and multi-faceted literature, which not only presents women’s experiences but also challenges them and reconstructs them. The article, framed within Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony, addresses the central question of how Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, Forough Farrokhzad, and Simin Behbahani—as three representatives of women’s poetry in the historical period under study—despite their differences and unique characteristics, have managed to create a dialogic and interactive space based on the logic of polyphony in their poems. In response, the article asserts that these poets, through the use of specific linguistic and structural techniques such as intertextuality, the abundance of vocative expressions, dialogic utterances, and carnivalesque elements, have generated an interactive and polyphonic space in their literary works which reflect the social and cultural conditions of their era and indicates an inclination toward generating dialogue with future audiences. The author employs qualitative content analysis to interpret the selected poems within their historical and social contexts, aiming to achieve a deeper understanding of their correlation with the social and cultural conditions of contemporary Iranian women. Discussion A comparative examination of the poetry of Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, Forough Farrokhzad, and Simin Behbahani, based on Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony, demonstrates the presence of diverse dialogues and voices in their works. Each poet, by employing distinct linguistic and structural methods, has established a polyphonic space in their poetry wherein multiple voices interact. Zhaleh Ghaemmaghami, relying on vocative expressions and intertextuality, creates a dialogic and interactive atmosphere. The frequent use of vocatives in her poetry indicates the poet’s effort to establish direct communication with the reader and foster a form of companionship. Additionally, her use of objects as interlocutors constructs a polyphonic space in which not only the poet’s voice but also the voices of objects and elements of everyday life are heard. Forough Farrokhzad, through carnivalesque elements, seeks to produce a lively, humorous, and popular atmosphere. In her poems, various voices including people of the streets and Bazaars (marketplaces), nature, and the poet’s inner self have intermingled. This diversity of voices imparts a carnivalesque and interactive dimension to her poetry. Simin Behbahani, combining carnivalesque elements with the method of question and answer, conveys social and political critique. In her poetry, different voices such as those in power, the people, and the poet confront one another in an interactive manner. These interacting voices confer Simin’s poetry with a dialogic and critical character. Conclusion Differences in the use of linguistic and structural elements among these three poets reflect variations in their viewpoints, experiences, and worldviews. Variations in style and method of the study’s poets may be influenced by the social and cultural factors of their respective eras. Each poet lived in a distinct historical period, and the social and cultural conditions of that time affected their worldview and manner of expression. For example, the prominent use of carnivalesque elements in Farrokhzad’s poetry can be seen as a reflection of the social and cultural atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s in Iran. Despite their individual differences, the poems of these three poets share common characteristics. All three, through narrative expression and dialogic based utterance, have given their poetry a sense of universalism and invited dialogue with future audiences. Moreover, all three emphasize Bakhtin’s concept of “self/other” and, through vocative utterances, have imbued their poetry with critical and protesting tones. The article’s final conclusion is that the polyphonic space in the poems of Zhaleh, Forough, and Simin is created by the interaction of various voices present in their poetry, adding depth and complexity to their works. نظریۀ چندصدایی باختین چارچوبی نظری برای تحلیل متون ادبی و گفتمان ارائه می‏دهد که می‏تواند به ما در درک بهتر شعر زنان قاجار تا انقلاب اسلامی کمک کند. این نظریه در مقابل نظریه‌های مونولوگیک قرار دارد که تنها یک صدا را به‌عنوان صدای غالب درنظر می‏گیرند. باختین معتقد است که متون ادبی متشکل از صداهای مختلف و گاه متضاد هستند که با یکدیگر تعامل و ارتباط دارند. این صداها می‏توانند شامل صدای نویسنده، راوی، شخصیت‏ها و حتی خواننده باشند. در همین راستا این مقاله به بررسی و تحلیل شعر سه شاعر برجستۀ زن ایرانی، ژاله قائم‌مقامی، فروغ فرخزاد، و سیمین بهبهانی، از منظر نظریۀ چندصدایی و گفت‌و‌گویی باختین می‏پردازد. این مقاله نشان می‏دهد که شعر زنان ایرانی، با وجود تقاوت‏های فردی، دارای ویژگی‏های مشترکی است که آن‏ها را در یک جریان ادبی متحد می‏کند و این ویژگی‏ها نشان‏دهندۀ تأثیرپذیری از آثار پیشین، تمایل به ایجاد دیالوگ با مخاطبان آینده و تمرکز بر مسائل اجتماعی و انسانی است. این تحقیق با استفاده از تحلیل محتوای کیفی، به تفسیر و تحلیل آثار پرداخته و به درک جدیدی از جایگاه شعر زنان در ادبیات معاصر ایران دست یافته است. درمجموع، بررسی تطبیقی اشعار ژاله قائم‌مقامی، فروغ فرخزاد و سیمین بهبهانی نشان می‏دهد که هر یک از این شاعران با بهره‌گیری از شیوه‌های زبانی و ساختاری خاص، فضایی چندصدا را در اشعار خود ایجاد کرده‌اند. این فضای چندصدا، حاصل تعامل صداهای مختلفی است که در شعر آن‌ها حضور دارند و به شعر آن‌ها عمق و پیچیدگی می‏بخشد.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27547_b91f9ae1efafed4d85107226536195f3.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Criticism of Female Writing Style in Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari’s Memoirs نقد و بررسی سبک نگارش زنانه در خاطرات سردار مریم بختیاری 133 174 27553 10.48311/lcq.2025.27553 FA اصغر شهبازی دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه فرهنگیان، تهران، ایران 0000-0001-9581-2367 Journal Article 2024 11 04 Feminist or feminine writing is widely recognized by linguists and literary critics, and examining feminine writing constitutes an important aspect of feminist literary criticism. In this study, the researcher seeks to find, examine and explain examples of female writing in a literary work. Based on this, with the aim of finding and explaining the examples of women’s writing, this article analyzes Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari’s memoirs using content analysis (descriptive-analytical approach). It was finally determined that at the level of tone and music, the tones are suitable for a variety of questions. The text features rhetorical, emotional, and occasionally instructive sentences. In the lexical layer, the author has reached a kind of lexical marking by bringing a variety of intensifying and reducing adverbs, curses, prayers, insults, and special words. At the syntactical level, the frequency of simple, short, and equivalent sentences (equal with punctuation marks) is high, and the author has used the element of formality and the closeness of written language to spoken language, and of course, in some places, syntactical tolerances, improper prepositions and delays, and grammatical errors can be seen. In terms of content, Sardar Maryam’s memoirs are clear examples of women’s writing, as she (as a woman) narrates her problems and troubles during her marriage, pregnancy, and so on, and challenges patriarchal culture Statement of the Problem The study of women's writing style or women's writing is one of the aspects of feminist criticism of literary works. In this study, the researcher, accepting that there are differences between women's writing and men's writing, seeks to find, study, and explain examples of those differences in a literary work. (Payandeh, 2019, Vol. 2: 100) With the explanation that the category of women's language; that is, a language specific to women, is not real (Taheri, 2019: 87) because language in itself has no connection with gender (Futohi, 2012: 396) However, women's writing style or women's writing is a category that most linguists and critics have accepted and have written books and articles about it. Lakoff believes that women use more expressive linguistic forms (adjectives and adverbs) than men, and the frequency of euphemisms and politeness, indirect, ambiguous, emotional and questioning forms in their writings is high. (Lakoff, 1990: 204) Regarding examples of feminine writing or stylistic features of women's writing, using the research of others and her own research, in the five layers of phonetic, lexical, syntactic, rhetorical and functional language, Futohi has listed features that are usually seen more in women's writings. (Futohi, 2012: 404-412) In this regard, the author intends to examine the feminine writing style in the memoirs of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari in order to answer the following questions: a) Can Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari's memoirs be considered one of the prominent examples of feminine writing style? b) In the memoirs of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari, at which level of language is feminine writing more prominent? c) What are the examples of feminine writing in Sardar Maryam's memoirs? Research Background No research has been conducted on the stylistic or linguistic features of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari's memoirs. Only one article has been written about her memoirs, titled "Critical Discourse Analysis of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari's Memoirs." In this article, Abbasi and Khanipour, using Fairclough's critical discourse analysis theory, examined Sardar Maryam's memoirs and concluded that Bibi Maryam, as an opponent of traditional discourse, criticized patriarchal culture and challenged society's traditional view of women, and in her personal life, she herself tried to free herself from the clutches of purely gender roles and achieve a role equal to men. (Abbasi and Khanipour, 1401: 81-103) However, there are many articles about women's writing style or feminine writing in the works of other women. One of the articles that is most consistent with the author's article is the article "Women's Language Style in the Memoirs of Taj-ol-Saltaneh". This consistency is also due to the fact that Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari met Taj-ol-Saltaneh and spoke about this meeting in her memoirs (Maryam Bakhtiari, 1382: 174-175) and both of them had almost the same fate. In this article, Razavi and Salehinia have tried to show examples of feminine writing in the memoirs of Taj-ol-Saltaneh, the daughter of Nasser al-Din Shah. They have finally concluded that in Taj-ol-Saltaneh's memoirs, the frequency of features such as marked words, expressive forms, and intensifiers is high, and Taj-ol-Saltaneh paid attention to the simplicity of language and the proximity of written language to speech in her memoirs. (Razavi and Salehini, 2015: 65-90) Research Method The research method in this article is a type of text analysis with a descriptive-analytical approach. In this article, the author, with the help of theorists' theories and existing models, designed the following model to examine the female writing style and examined Sardar Maryam's memoirs based on this model at six levels: 1. Phonetic Level Examination of tone (emotional: polite, shy, passive, excited, emotional); Examination of tone-forming factors: phonological processes and rough chain processes of writing such as emphasis, pause, and extension; Inner music: repetition and symmetry 2. Lexical level Type of words: marked or unmarked (beautiful, mellow, pretty, hair, hair, arm, nail, embrace; to give birth, sweep, do makeup, pull hair, pull hair, make jealous); Frequency of first-person pronouns and self-reference; Frequency of intensifiers: adverbial clauses, adverbial clauses; Frequency of synonyms; Type of curses, swear words and adverbs 3. Syntactic level Frequency of cognate sentences; Frequency of incomplete sentences; Frequency of sentences with the imperative mood (modality); Negligent grammatical structures; Proximity to spoken language 4. Rhetorical level Textuality; Frequency of allusions, digressions and humor; Type of metaphors 5. Content and thought level Writing about oneself and from one's own body: married life, pregnancy, miscarriage and illness, etc.; Describing one's man or husband; Expression of feminine behaviors: dressing up, crying, being jealous 6. Structural level Chronic atrophy; cyclical structure Conclusion The study of feminine writing style or feminine writing is one of the aspects of feminist criticism of literary works. In this study, the researcher seeks to find, examine, and explain examples of feminine writing in a text written by women. With this perspective, in this article, with the aim of finding and explaining examples of feminine writing, the memoirs of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari are examined and it is determined that at the level of tone and rhythm, she has created an emotional and gentle feminine tone with a variety of rhetorical questions, emotional sentences, and sometimes admonitions. At the lexical level, the author has achieved a kind of lexical marking by introducing various types of intensifying and reducing adverbs, such as "very", "to some extent" and curses, prayers, curses and special emphasis words. Of course, influenced by women's care for language, she has repeatedly used "is" instead of "is" and "appearance" instead of "did", etc. At the syntactic level, like most women, the frequency of simple, short, and coherent sentences in her memoirs is high; especially sentences that are connected with punctuation marks (periods and semicolons, etc.) instead of conjunctions. At this same level, the author uses the element The mood; that is, the emotional sentences used with verbs with the imperative mood, and his writing is a clear example of a writing in which the written language is close to the spoken language; of course, in some places it also suffers from some syntactic tolerances, incorrect prepositions and delays, and grammatical errors, and for example, it has left a gap between the components of a compound verb or used the verbs incompletely or made compound sentences that do not comply with the principles of grammar. In the content layer, the memoirs of Sardar Maryam are a clear example of a feminine writing, because in it she is repeatedly spoken of as a woman, her problems and troubles during her marriage, pregnancy, etc., and of course, the women of the Bakhtiari community and Iranian women are also addressed many times, and the patriarchal culture that is indifferent to women is condemned. References Payandeh, Hossein. (2019). Literary Theory and Criticism (an interdisciplinary textbook), second edition, Tehran: Samt. Razavi, Taheri, Qodratollah. (2009). "Women's Language and Writing; Reality or Illusion?", Literary Textual Studies Journal, Issue 42, pp. 87-108. Abassi, Somayeh and Somayeh Khanipour. (2001). "Critical Discourse Analysis of Maryam Bakhtiari's Memoirs", Iranian History after Islam, Issue 33, pp. 81-103. Futouhi Roudmoejni, Mahmoud. (2012). Stylistics: Theories, Approaches and Methods, Tehran: Sokhan. Fatemeh and Maryam Salehini. (2015). "Women's Language Style in the Memoirs of Taj-ol-Saltaneh", Literary Textual Studies Journal, Issue 31, pp. 65-91. Maryam Bakhtiari. (2003). Memoirs of Sardar Maryam, edited by Gholam Abbas Norouzi Bakhtiari, Tehran: Anzan. Lakoff, R. T. (1990). Talking power: The politics of language in our lives. New York: Basic . زنانه‌نویسی یا سبک نگارش زنانه، موضوعی است که مورد قبول بیشتر زبان‌شناسان و منتقدان ادبی است و بررسی سبک نگارش زنانه یا زنانه‌نویسی یکی از وجوه نقد فمنیسیتی آثار ادبی است. در این بررسی، محقق به دنبال یافتن، بررسی و تبیین مصادیق زنانه‌نویسی در یک اثر ادبی است. بر این اساس در این مقاله، با هدف یافتن و تبیین مصادیق زنانه‌نویسی، خاطرات سردار مریم بختیاری، به روش تحلیل محتوا (رویکرد توصیفی ـ تحلیلی) بررسی شده و درنهایت مشخص شده که در سطح لحن و آهنگ، لحن‌های مناسب با انواعی از پرسش‌های بلاغی، جملات عاطفی و گاه اندرزی آفریده شده است. در لایة واژگانی نیز نویسنده با آوردن انواعی از قید‌های شدت‌افزا و تقلیل‌دهنده، نفرین‌ها، دعاها، دشنام‌ها و تکیه‌کلام‌های خاص، به نوعی از نشان‌داری واژگانی رسیده است. در سطح نحوی، بسامد جملات ساده، کوتاه، هم‌پایه (هم‌پایه با علائم نگارشی) بالاست و نویسنده از عنصر وجهیت و نزدیکی زبان نوشتار به گفتار بهره برده و البته در برخی از جاها، تسامح‌های نحوی، تقدیم و تأخیرهای ناصواب و اشکالات دستوری دیده می‌شود. در لایة محتوایی، خاطرات سردار مریم مصداق بارز یک نوشتة زنانه است، زیرا در آن خاطرات، نویسنده بارها از خود به عنوان یک زن، مشکلات و گرفتاری‌هایش در دوران شوهرداری، بارداری و... سخن گفته و فرهنگ مردسالار را به چالش کشیده است.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27553_2ff4529fe221eba7d79ce74b59d91e60.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Mahmoud Homan’s Philosophical Reflections on the Nature and Coordinates of Poetry Introduction of Literary Characters: Cognitive Research or Discourse Construction? معرفی شخصیت ادبی: شناختی تحقیقی یا برساختی گفتمانی؟ 175 210 27548 10.48311/lcq.2025.27548 FA اسماعیل علی پور استادیار گروه آموزشی زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، دانشگاه بجنورد، بجنورد، ایران 0000-0001-5418-4851 Journal Article 2024 10 30 Historians and literary critics make a great contribution to the audience’s awareness of literary characters. One of the ways to introduce characters is to use nicknames and titles for them. The genealogy of naming and titling shows that such introductions have a discourse function. The representatives and followers of the discourses position characters within their preferred discursive space and introduce them in ways that stabilize meaning and extend the reach of the discourse. The study’s point of departure is the one-dimensional introduction of literary characters within discourse. The main question of the research is: What strategies do the representatives and followers of the discourses employ in constraining the one-dimensional introduction of literary characters? Another question is: How can the constraints of character introduction in literature be resolved? To answer these questions, the study employs the theoretical frameworks of discourse analysis and constructivism. The findings of this research show that the discourses are only indicative of a limited and specific dimension of literary characters and to achieve this goal they select parts of their works that are in line with the goals of the same discourse. In doing so, they introduce them in a way that comes from the chosen textual body. Considering discourse order and literary character puzzle based on various sources and a free and comprehensive approach to all the works of a poet/ writer can be a basis for originality in the research understanding of literary characters. Introduction This research explores the methodologies and implications of introducing literary figures within Persian literary history, focusing on the prevalent practice of assigning fixed epithets and titles. During the Classical period, when oral discourse was the dominant medium, epithets served multifaceted roles in political, religious, socio-cultural, economic, and artistic contexts. Politically, they functioned as identifiers of favored individuals, enabling rulers to capture hearts and govern with perceived legitimacy, even without physical presence. Religiously, they offered a pathway to claim spiritual authority by linking, through intermediaries, to esteemed religious figures. Socio-culturally, they clarified the relationship between the populace and their leaders, providing a clear image of the intertwined religious and political institutions. For the poet/ writer, these titles offered economic support from these institutions and potential status within the power structure, while also showcasing rhetorical and literary prowess through word choice, syntax, and stylistic devices. This historical backdrop frames the core research question: Based on a writer’s surviving works, what kind of literary character are we encountering? Is this character monolithic and singular or do we hear diverse and multiple voices within their works? The study critiques the common historical and literary practice of presenting literary figures through singular, often stereotypical, labels. Scholars like Zarqāni (2009) have identified the flattening of characters as a methodological weakness in Persian literary historiography, while Fotuhi & Afshin-Vafāyi (2009) have shown how titles for figures like Hāfez reflect distinct literary and mystical personas. Zarqāni (2019) further employs the “cultural-literary mosaic” metaphor to describe the multifaceted nature of key literary figures during transitional periods. The research underscores the distinction between reality (physical phenomena) and truth (discursively constructed realities). These constructed truths, through repetition and acceptance, often appear natural and objective. A unidimensional approach to literary characters inadvertently traps us within specific discourses. This study argues against such simplistic portrayals, whether naive or intentionally constructed, emphasizing that discursive constructs, despite historical reinforcement, are not absolute reflections of pre-existing truths but specific representations born through language. The theoretical framework draws upon constructivism and discourse analysis, rooted in Foucauldian thought, which posits that “truth is a discursive construct” and that different knowledge regimes determine what is considered true or false (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2022). The central hypotheses are threefold: 1) The epithets and titles assigned to literary figures in historical and biographical sources are discursive constructs. 2) These constructs, despite historical repetition and reinforcement, are not permanently fixed. 3) These constructed labels alone are insufficient to represent the multifaceted and diverse dimensions of literary characters. Materials & Methods This qualitative research utilizes a critical discourse analysis approach, examining the historical and literary texts that have shaped the perception of prominent Persian literary figures. The primary materials include: Historical Literary Criticism (Tazkerahs): Texts like those by Safā, ‘Owfi, and Nozhat al-Ansāb, which are primary sources for the epithets and titles assigned to poets. Literary Works: The primary corpus of the poets themselves (e.g., Hāfez, Sa’di, Ferdowsi) to analyze the textual evidence of their multifaceted literary personas. Secondary Scholarly Analyses: Works by modern scholars (e.g., Zarqāni, Fotuhi & Afshin-Vafāyi, ZarrinKub) that discuss the portrayal and interpretation of literary characters. Theoretical Frameworks: Concepts from Foucauldian discourse analysis and constructivism to interpret how knowledge and identity are shaped within specific discursive practices. The method involves a comparative analysis of the titles/ epithets assigned by historians and critics versus the evidence of diverse voices, themes and personas found within the poets’ own works. It also examines how specific scholars and ideologues (like Shāmlu and Motahhari regarding Hāfez) have selectively interpreted these figures to fit their own discursive agendas. The study investigates the strategies used by discourse proponents to appropriate literary figures, including selection and omission of specific works, rhetorical strategies in interpretation and the creation of transformative myths about the poets lives. Research Findings The findings reveal a significant discrepancy between the monolithic portrayals of literary figures in traditional and some modern literary histories and the complex, multi-dimensional characters evident in their works. The study identifies several key points: 1. Prevalence of Unidimensional Portrayals: Literary historians frequently introduce poets with singular, defining epithets (e.g., “Sa’di of Hendustān”, “Shahid Balkhi”, “Master of Epic Ferdowsi”). These labels, while potentially highlighting a dominant aspect, significantly limit the readers’ understanding of the authors’ full literary persona. 2. Discursive Construction: These epithets are shown to be discursive constructs rather than objective truths. They often originate from historical sources, tazkerahs, or the agendas of specific scholars or ideological groups, aiming to categorize and sometimes appropriate literary figures for particular narratives. 3. Evidence of Multidimensionality: An analysis of the poets’ works reveals multiple voices and personas. For instance, Hāfez is shown not only as the “Mystic Saint” but also as a court poet engaged in panegyric, a lover expressing earthly passion, a critic of authority and a follower of Khayyam’s philosophy (Khayyāmiyyat). Similarly, Attar is not solely the “Sufi Master” but also the author of the philosophically nuanced Mokhtārnāmeh. 4. Strategies of Discourse Appropriation: The study identifies methods used by proponents of specific discourses to maintain their narratives: - Selection and Omission: Choosing specific works or verses that support a particular interpretation while ignoring contradictory evidence. - Rhetorical Strategies: Using persuasive language and argumentation Transformative Myths: Fabricating or emphasizing biographical narratives that align with the desired discursive framework (e.g., the myth of Hāfez’s attention by Shāh Ne’matollah Wali). 5. Limitations of Traditional Approaches: The research demonstrates that relying solely on epithets and titles derived from secondary sources leads to prejudicial and non-research based judgments, hindering a comprehensive understanding of literary characters. Discussion of Results & Conclusions - The discussion emphasizes that the unidimensional introduction of literary characters is a persistent issue rooted in the historical practice of epithet assignment to reinforce a specific viewpoint and marginalize opposing interpretations (exemplified in Motahhari’s discussions of Hāfez). - Creation of and perpetuated by traditional literary historiography and some contemporary scholarship. This practice, influenced by the need for respect, patronage, or adherence to dominant discourses, results in a flattened representation that fails to capture the true complexity of these figures. The findings strongly support the hypotheses that these epithets are discursive constructs, not fixed truths, and that they inadequately represent the full spectrum of a literary character’s identity. The evidence from the poets’ own works clearly indicates the presence of multiple, sometimes conflicting, voices and themes, suggesting a “multi-faceted” or “mosaic” nature to their literary personas aligning with Zarqāni’s metaphor. The study argues for a paradigm shift towards a “puzzle piece” model for understanding literary characters. This model acknowledges that a literary figure’s identity is composed of various interconnected pieces—influenced by lived experience (context), textual knowledge (intertextuality), and individual creativity (individuality)—which must be assembled to form a coherent and comprehensive picture. This approach recognizes the “multi-part subject” phenomenon, where a single authorial “I” can embody multiple identities (e.g., mystic, satirist, court poet, and social critic) depending on the context or discourse. The conclusion posits that accepting the “discursive order”—acknowledging the existence of multiple, sometimes competing, discourses and interpretations—is a constructive way forward. It prevents the monopolization of a literary figure by a single discourse and fosters a more democratic and holistic approach to literary history. Introducing literary characters based solely on one dominant aspect fails to do justice to the author or provide the reader with a complete understanding. Therefore, the recommended approach for researchers is a critical and simultaneous consultation of multiple sources: primarily the author’s own works supported by historical reports, tazkerahs and contemporary accounts. By grounding analysis in the primary texts and using other sources for validation, researchers can reveal the multiple voices and diverse dimensions within a literary character. This multifaceted introduction offers a comprehensive, multi-layered, and varied perspective, convincing the audience that the literary figure is not confined to a specific discourse, thereby preventing dogmatic and partisan views. References Fotuhi, M., & Afshin-Vafaei, M. (2009). “Mokhātabshenāsi-ye Hāfez dar sadehā-ye hashtom va nohom-e hejri bar asās-e roykard-e tārikh-e adabi-ye hermenotic”. Faslnāme-ye Naqd-e Adabi. 2(6), pp. 71–126. [in Persian] Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2022). Nazariyeh va ravesh dar tahlil-e goftemān. H. Jalili (Trans.). 11th ed. Nashr-e Ney. (Original work published 2002). [in Persian] Zarqani, S. M. (2009). Tārikh-e adabi-ye Irān va qalamrow-e zabān-e Fārsi: Tatavvor va degardisi-ye zhānrhā tā miyāne-ye sadeh-ye panjom. Sokhan. [in Persian] Zarqani, S. M. (2019). Tārikh-e adabiyāt-e Irān (2) bā ruykard-e zhānri. Fātemi. [in Persian] مورخان و منتقدان ادبی سهم بسیاری در آگاهی مخاطبان از شخصیت‏های ادبی دارند. یکی از راه‏کارهای معرفی شخصیت‏ها، کاربرد القاب و عناوین برای آن‏هاست. تبارشناسیِ لقب‏سازی و عنوان‏بندی، نشان می‏دهد این‏گونه معرفی‏ها، کارکرد گفتمانی دارند. نمایندگان و پیروان گفتمان‏ها برای تثبیتِ معنا و گسترشِ گفتمان، شخصیت‏هایی را به فضای گفتمانیِ موردنظرشان فرامی‏خوانند و آن‏ها را آن‏گونه که می‏خواهند معرفی می‏کنند. نقطۀ عزیمتِ پژوهش حاضر، معرفی تک‏بُعدی شخصیت‏های ادبی است که وجه گفتمانی یافته‏اند. پرسش اصلی پژوهش این است که نمایندگان و پیروانِ گفتمان‏ها از چه تمهیداتی در تحدیدِ تک‏بُعدی معرفیِ شخصیت‏های ادبی استفاده می‏کنند؟ سؤال دیگری که در پیِ پرسش نخست، مطرح می‏شود این است که چه راه‏کارهایی برای برون‏رفت از تنگنای معرفی گفتمانیِ شخصیت‏های ادبی وجود دارد؟ برای پاسخ به این پرسش‏ها از نظریۀ تحلیل گفتمان و برساخت‏گرایی استفاده ‏کردیم. یافته‏های این پژوهش نشان‏ می‏دهد که گفتمان‏ها صرفاً معرف بُعدِ محدود و مشخصی از شخصیت‏های ادبی هستند و برای رسیدن به این مقصود، بخش‏هایی را از آثار ایشان برمی‏گزیند که در راستای اغراض همان گفتمان باشد و آن‏ها را به‏گونه‏ای معرفی می‏کنند که از پیکرۀ متنیِ برگزیده برمی‏آید. درنظر گرفتن «نظم گفتمانی» و «پازل شخصیت ادبی» براساس منابع گوناگون و نگرش آزاد و همه‏جانبه به تمام آثار یک شاعر/ نویسنده می‏تواند مبنایی برای اصالت در شناخت تحقیقیِ شخصیت‏های ادبی باشد.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27548_1f0676fd3f275d08290dec8157496a08.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Mahmoud Homan’s Philosophical Reflections on the Nature and Coordinates of Poetry Introduction of Literary Characters: Cognitive Research or Discourse Construction? بررسی و تحلیل اصطلاح زمین از نگاه منتقدان و تازه‌گویان سده‌های یازدهم و دوازدهم هجری 211 257 27551 10.48311/lcq.2025.27551 FA جلیل قاسمی ریاست جمهوری عفت نقابی دانشگاه خوارزمی حبیب اله عباسی دانشگاه خوارزمی Journal Article 2025 05 08 Zamin” [ground] is one of the terms that, in the 11th and 12th Hijri centuries, emerged as a critical literary term in historical literary sources and the poetry of innovative poets, acquiring a specific and unique usage. In poetic gatherings—many of which were recorded in biographical anthologies (Tazkiras)—innovative poets proposed a poetic ground (zamin) through imitation and experimentation, composing eloquent and refined verses within it. Since no comprehensive research has yet been conducted on this term, this study aims to examine zamin within its historical and literary context, revisiting the perspectives of Safavid-era poets and critics to identify its nature, forms, achievements, and drawbacks in the literary sphere of that period. Using a library-based research method and a descriptive-analytical approach, this study scrutinizes the term. As the findings suggest, zamin is an essential term for modern literary criticism, serving as a concise and comprehensive alternative to meter, rhyme, and refrain. This term first appeared in Resaleh-ye Jalaliyeh by Mohtasham Kashani and his odes, later appearing in the diwans of Ghazali Mashhadi, Orfi Shirazi, and Muntakhab al-Tawarikh by Bada’uni, before becoming prevalent in the diwans and Tazkiras of the period. Although zamin was primarily applied to the ghazal form, it is noteworthy that the creation and proposal of it were not limited to “misra’” [line], “beyt” [couplet], or ghazals but also appeared in mathnawi and qasida forms. While crafting complex meanings, intricate themes, and striking lines often required fresh and innovative zamin, at times the poetic zamin proved restrictive and unproductive, failing to nurture new thematic developments. Additionally, it sometimes led to negative consequences, such as facilitating the plagiarism of other poets’ meanings and themes, resulting in the creation of low-value, monotonous, and repetitive ghazals with clichéd and poorly constructed themes. Introduction During the Safavid era, particularly in the 11th and 12th centuries AH, certain specialized terms became prevalent in biographical anthologies (tazkiras) and poetic collections (diwans). These terms had previously been used in a general sense but acquired specific meanings during this period. The number of such terms in this literary epoch is considerable; they appear primarily in tazkiras, in the writings of critics from the Indian subcontinent, and in the diwans of poets of the time, and their usage is largely confined to poetic criticism. In essence, the trend of Taz-e Goftan [innovative expression] and Tarze Tazeh [fresh style], in dialogue with the schools of Voqu’ and Vasokht, required specific terminology to facilitate literary creativity. Poets relied on these newly coined terms both in theoretical discourse and in crafting poetic themes. In other words, these terms defined the framework and structure of the poetry of the era. Shamisa (1999) remarks on this: The heated debates on literary criticism and stylistics that had begun among Indian literati necessitated new terminology. These terms reveal just how intense and profound literary discussions were within the cultural circles of India (Shamisa, 1999). This aspect of literary criticism—the use of poetic-critical terminology—is more clearly reflected in tazkiras and in the works of subcontinental critics. It is no exaggeration to say that the subcontinent played a major role in the development of literary criticism during the Safavid period. The most significant domain of literary criticism in the history of Persian literature emerged in India (Shamisa, 1999). The presence of masterful critics such as Siraj al-Din Ali Khan Arzu and Mir Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami helped place poetic creation within a specific, assessable, and criticizable framework. This critical perspective was also evident among poets and Persian-language writers, who generally followed similar techniques and methods in composing poetry. One such technique was tatta’abo [emulation], that is, responding to the poetry of earlier poets—a method widely observed in the ghazals of poets of this period, especially Sa’ib, Fani Kashmiri, Juyā Tabrizi, and Sayyida-ye Nasafi. Mir Mohammad Zaman Rasekh expresses this idea in the following verse: “The mind is not content with mere imitation of fortune, One cannot build a house upon another’s foundation (zamin)” (Iman, 1970, p. 304). Another method sets a misra’ [line] or beyt [couplet] as a basis on which poets would test their skills and learn the craft of poetry. This approach served as a basis for creating striking linees, elevated couplets, and kindred ghazals, numerous examples of which can be found in the diwans of poets from this era. The term under discussion, zamin [poetic ground], was used in the teaching and learning of poetic craft during this period. In poetic symposia (majalis-e mosha’ereh), poets would propose a new zamin and invite others to test their poetic abilities within it: “I have not raised the head of my thought to such heights That anyone but the emulator of my verse could conceive such a ground” (Bidel, 2008, p. 853). Here, it is important to note that creating/inventing a poetic ground and discovering/proposing one are two distinct concepts. Creative and innovative poets like Sa’ib and Bidel were the originators of poetic zamin, and crafted model poems for others to emulate depended on their imaginative capacity. By contrast, proposing and presenting that poetic ground served to facilitate emulation and imitation, aligning composition with the prevailing poetic style. Findings and Research Results The search for the term zamin in literary-historical sources from the 11th and 12th Hijri centuries, together with an analysis of its usage in its contextual usage, leads us to conclude that its origins trace back to Resāleh-ye Jalāliyeh by Mohtasham Kashani. Following him, poets and biographers from both Iran and India adopted and further established the term. Among them, prominent figures of the Indian Style (sabk-e hindi) gave special attention to this term. These include Sa’ib Tabrizi, Shohrat Shirazi, and Ta’sir Tabrizi, representing the Iranian branch (Nāzokh-Khiyālān), as well as Bidel Dehlavi, Gani Kashmiri, and Ghanimat Panjabi, representing the Indian branch (Dur-Khiyālān). Among the biographical anthologies and literary-historical sources examined in this study, it appears that the term zamin was first used in Muntakhab al-Tawārīkh by Bada’uni. Subsequently, it appeared in works such as Muzakkir al-Asḥāb, Kalemāt al-Shu’arā, Safīneh-ye Khoshgu, Riyāz al-Shu’arā, Majma ‘al-Nafā’is, Maqālāt al-Shu’arā, Mardom-Dideh, Khazāneh-ye ‘Āmerah, Sham ‘-e Anjoman. However, in some tazkiras—sometimes even within the same texts—alternative terms were used instead of zamin, such as tatabbo [emulation], dar bahr [in meter], dar bahr va qāfiyeh [in meter and rhyme], pirovī [following], justojū-ye kalām-e ostādān [seeking masters’ words], javāb-go’ī [response poetry], taqlīd [imitation], be rāh... qadam zadan [walking in the path of...], naqīzeh [parody], nazireh-gū’ī [writing poetic responses], and esteqbāl [welcoming verse]. Nevertheless, zamin proved to be more comprehensive and frequently used term. A brief review of tazkiras such as Mer’āt al-Khayāl, Hamīsheh Bahār, Kalemāt al-Shu’arā, Majma’al-Nafā’is, Khazāneh-ye ‘Āmerah, and Shām-e Gharībān reveals that Indian biographers and critics devoted far greater attention to this term—and to literary criticism more generally—than did their Iranian counterparts. During the Safavid period, the term zamin entered a new semantic phase. Innovative poets (Tāzeh-Guyān) and literary critics introduced it into a new domain of poetic criticism, giving it a meaning previously unseen in Persian literary history. These meaning-weaving poets (ma’nī-band) and theme-creators (mazmūn-āfarīn) would establish a fresh poetic zamin—a framework with appealing meter, rhyme, refrain, and syntax— within which they crafted novel meanings, striking verses (mesrā’-e barjasteh), and innovative themes. They then presented this framework as a challenge for other poets to test their skills and refine their craft. This poetic contestation (zūr-āzmāyī) for composing lofty and vivid poetry is well attested in literary histories, tazkiras, and the diwans of innovative poets. The zamin proposed by master poets served as a model through which others could learn the norms of Tarz-e Tāzeh (the Fresh Style). The fruitful efforts of these poets in utilizing zamin are evident in three key areas: meaning, striking lines, and themes. Beyond individual lines (mesrā’) and couplets (beyt), ghazals, mathnawis, and qasidas also served as poetic zamins for innovators. However, the ghazal—due to its structural independence and suitability for meaning-creation (ma’nī-āfarīnī)—was the most effective form for proposing new zamin. Given that the ghazal dominated this era (often called the Age of the Ghazal), zamin became particularly associated with this form. Not every zamin was equally conducive to thematic exploration (mazmūn-yābī), meaning-creation (ma’nī-bandī), or poetic innovation. Descriptors such as “sanglākh” [rocky], “tang” [narrow], “moshkel” [difficult], and “sakht” [hard] reflect the challenges poets faced in composing within certain frameworks. Moreover, the overuse of zamin led to several drawbacks, including the production of low-quality, uninspired verses lacking beauty and originality; overlapping themes among poets (tavārod); literary theft (serqat-e adabī) and plagiarism; repetitive meanings, clichéd themes, and unoriginal imagery (ibtizāl); and excessive imitation (tatabbo), which stifled creativity. Thus, while zamin was a vital tool for poetic innovation, its misuse contributed to the decline in poetic quality, reinforcing derivative and repetitive compositions in later periods. References Bidel Dehlavi, A. M. A. al-Q. (2008). Ghazaliyyāt-e-Mirza Abd al-Qadir Bidel Dehlavi (K. M. Khasta & K. Khalili, Eds.; F. Moradi, Rev. & Notes). Zavvar Publications. [In Persian] Iman, R. A. K. (1970). Tazkirat-e-muntakhab al-lata’if (S. M. R. Jalali Na’ini & S. A. H. Abidi, Eds.). Chap-e Tabaan Publications. [In Persian] Shamisa, S. (1999). Naqd-e-adabi [Literary criticism]. Ferdows Publications. [In Persian] زمین ازجمله واژه‌هایی است که در سده‌های یازدهم و دوازدهم هجری به‌صورت یک اصطلاح نقد ادبی در منابع تاریخ ادبی و نیز اشعار تازه‌گویان، فراوان به‌کار رفته و کاربرد خاص و ویژه‌ای یافته است. در مجالس شعرگویی که گزارش‌های بسیاری از آن‌ها در تذکره‌ها ثبت شده است، تازه‌گویان به شیوة تتبع و پیروی و برای طبع‌آزمایی موزونان، زمین شعری طرح می‌کردند و در آن ابیاتی بلند و اشعاری عالی و رسا می‌آفریدند. از آنجا که تاکنون دربارة اصطلاح زمین تحقیقی جامع صورت نگرفته، این نوشتار بر آن است که این اصطلاح را در «جای» و «گاه» آن مورد بررسی قرار دهد و از طریق بازخوانی دیدگاه‌های شاعران و منتقدان دورۀ صفوی، ماهیت، قالب‌ها، دستاوردها و زیان‌های آن را در سپهر ادبی آن روزگار بازشناسد. بدین منظور با روش مطالعات کتابخانه‌ای و به شیوة توصیفی ـ تحلیلی آن را مورد مطالعه و مداقه قرار می‌دهد. آن‌گونه که از نتیجة طرز تازه دریافت می‌شود، «زمین» اصطلاحی لازم برای نقد ادبی امروز است که به‌جای وزن و قافیه و ردیف (روی هم) می‌آید و بسیار کوتاه و جامع است. این اصطلاح نخست در رسالۀ جلالیۀ محتشم کاشانی و قصاید وی به کار رفته و پس از آن، در دیوان غزالی مشهدی، دیوان عرفی شیرازی و منتخب‌التواریخ بداؤنی آمده وسپس به‌طور موازی در دیوان‌ها و تذکره‌های این دوره نمایان شده است. با توجه به اینکه اصطلاح زمین درمورد قالب غزل به‌کار رفته، اما نکتۀ قابل ذکر اینکه خلق و طرح زمینِ شعر غیر از مصراع وبیت و غزل، در قالب‌های مثنوی و قصیده نیز دیده می‌شود. با آنکه بستن و آفرینش معنی‌های پیچیده و مضمون‌های رنگین و باریک و مصراع‌های برجسته راهی بوده که از مسیر زمین‌های تازه و طرح آن می‌گذشته است، اما گاهی زمین شعر، زمینی سنگلاخ و ناهموار بوده و گل‌های معنی و مضمون تازه در آن نروییده است، گاهی نیز زیان‌هایی در بر داشته، ازجمله زمینه‌ای برای سرقت معانی و مضامین دیگر شاعران شده و موجب خلق غزل‌های کم‌ارز، همسان و مشابه و مضمون‌های مبتذل و تکراری و و بدبسته شده است.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27551_4f1300af0bebc9d72b7f44b65eb275d9.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس فصلنامه نقد ادبی 2008-0360 18 70 2025 08 23 Description and Theoretical Origin of the Khorasani Style وصف و خاستگاه نظری آن در سبک خراسانی 258 298 27550 10.48311/lcq.2025.27550 FA حمزه کفاش دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد 0000-0003-1585-8563 Journal Article 2025 04 30 One of the important periods in Persian poetry is the Khorasani style. The poetry of the Khorasani style is renowned for its simplicity of description and precise depictions. This kind of description, contrary to the opinion of stylisticians, has a theoretical origin that is manifested in the poetic theory of Avicenna (Ibn Sina). The influence of Greek rhetoric and the understanding of Aristotle's art of poetry within the Syriac and Iranian-Islamic traditions play a role in the comprehension of the issue of description during this period. On the other hand, familiarity with and influence of the poetics of Arabic qasidas and rhetorical sciences in the fourth century put forward another reading of the subject of description. The relationship between truthful speech and precise depiction in the poetry of this period, through a rereading of the poetic treatises of Farabi and Avicenna, indicates that false speech has its roots in the interpretations of Alexandrian philosophers, which entered the tradition of Islamic rhetoric through Farabi. This study reveals the origin of description in the Khorasani style within the poetic theory of Avicenna. This article re-examines the depiction of nature in the Khorasani style, which until now was limited to natural phenomena, considering nature in the meaning of the Greek phosis and analyzes its manifestation in two realms: the natural and the political, within the Khorasani style. The Khorasani style—spanning from the second half of the 9th century to the end of the 11th century—was renowned for its simple and realistic descriptions. This stylistic feature appears in both the poetry and prose of the period. In the early centuries of Persian poetry, descriptions were often extended; that is, the poet would depict a single object—usually drawn from nature—across several verses. However, from the late 11th century onward, this method underwent a transformation, largely due to the increased use of metaphor and a shift in poets’ worldview and modes of thinking. Therefore, it is first necessary to clarify the concept and nature of nature-description in the Khorasani style and to revisit it through a historical and stylistic lens. Description in the Khorasani style manifests in diverse forms. Poets and writers of this period occasionally depicted their visual experiences in the manner they perceived them. In other words, there exists a correspondence between visual experience and verbal depiction. This correspondence is not necessarily literal or one-to-one; rather, it is rooted in sensory and perceptual engagement. Such visual correspondence may be termed visual mimesis. Conversely, the perceived image may express itself through actions and behaviors—what may be called behavioral mimesis—in which a behavior, most often a human one, is transferred onto the object being described. Methodology The methodology of this article is to reassess and reread previous assumptions about description in the Khorasani style, with careful attention to both the Greek rhetorical tradition and the Iranian-Islamic rhetorical heritage. In essence, the article advances three central claims: first, the influence of Greek rhetoric on Islamic rhetoric; second, the impact of rhetorical sciences of the time on poets; and finally, the presence of a classical poetics within the Arabic qasida tradition. Theoretical Framework What requires a critical rereading is the fact that mimesis should not be conflated with the theory of representation. This fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of mimesis has led stylisticians to regard the Khorasani style as objectivist. However, in mimesis, the reference is to phosis—nature—and this nature is not merely external or objective. Physis, as will be shown, can also refer to human nature. As is evident in the Poetics, Aristotle’s notion of mimesis is, in fact, mimesis of action (Aristotle, Poetics, 1448a: 4). In fact, poetry in the view of poets of the Khorasani style appears as an inquiry into truth. Therefore, the description of nature (phosis) in Khorasani poetry can be examined on two levels: one is the depiction of the natural, and the other is the depiction of the political. A significant portion of the Islamic rhetorical tradition is undoubtedly derived from and influenced by the Greek rhetorical tradition, and many Greek rhetorical theories can be traced within Islamic rhetoric. Beyond the familiarity of Khorasani-style poets with rhetorical sciences, it is clear to all scholars that the Persian qasida is a continuation of the Arabic qasida. Therefore, elaborating on this point would be a mere repetition of the obvious and redundant, which we shall omit. Here, it suffices to note that poets of this period—such as Manuchehri, who famously stated, “I have memorized many collections of Arabic poetry”—were well acquainted with the genres of the Arabic qasida and were influenced by the classical poetics of Arabic poetry. This influence was not limited to the structure of the qasida but also extended to modes of description. The issue of description in the early centuries of Persian poetry has a relation to the idea of mimesis in the Greek tradition. Mimesis is one of the key terms in the earliest translations of Aristotle’s Poetics. Consequently, in engaging with the Iranian-Islamic rhetorical tradition, one encounters a spectrum of terms such as imagination (takhayyul), imitation (taqlid), mimesis, and even tangible similes (comparisons from sense to sense). Conclusion The issue of description in the Khorasani style is not limited to a perspective such as the underdevelopment of rhetorical sciences. Rather, we have demonstrated that description, as the ‘amud al-shi‘r in the Khorasani style, has a theoretical foundation upon which Avicenna develops his poetic theory in the Art of Poetry section of The Healing. This viewpoint partially aligns with the theories of Arab and Greek theorists. The theory of Ahsan al-Shi‘r (the Best Poetry) constitutes one of the intersections in the longstanding debate over truth and falsehood in poetry, a dispute that has endured among scholars of rhetoric and philosophers. The rhetoricians’ interpretation of mimsin (imitation) and the imaginative quality of poetry is linked to the issue of poetic truth and falsehood, which remains a subject of discussion to this day. Although the weight of Ahsan al-Shi‘r as false poetry is stronger, the question of truthfulness in poetry has been a matter of concern among many rhetoricians and philosophers. For poets of the Khorasani style, the truthful expression of the object as it holds great significance. A superficial perspective and analysis of nature in Khorasani poetry limit deeper investigations into the qasida of this period. Nature in this style bears a deeper meaning than what is commonly understood as the mere description of natural phenomena. Nature in Khorasani poetry was examined in two dimensions: the natural realm and the political realm. On the other hand, the influence of the classical poetics of Arabic poetry on this period’s poetry reflects the penetration of poets’ and rhetoricians’ ideas into the modes of expression of Khorasani poets. Furthermore, we examined the influence of Greek rhetoric and the relation between ekphrasis and description in the Khorasani style, highlighting its similarities with the issue of description in Khorasani poetry and reinterpreting it as one of the origins of the problem of description in this poetic style. یکی از ادوار مهم شعر فارسی سبک خراسانی است. شعر سبک خراسانی به سادگی وصف و توصیفات دقیق مشهور است. این نوع توصیف، برخلاف نظر سبک‌شناسان خاستگاهی نظری دارد که در نظریۀ شعری ابن سینا نمود می‌یابد. تأثیر بلاغت یونانی و فهم فن شعر ارسطو در سنت سریانی و سپس در سنت ایرانی ـ اسلامی در کاربست مسئلۀ توصیف در این دوره نقش دارد. از سوی دیگر آشنایی و تأثیر بوطیقای قصاید عربی و نیز علوم بلاغی در قرن چهارم خوانشی دیگر از موضوع وصف را پیش می‌نهد. نسبت قول صادق و وصف دقیق در شعر این دوره با بازخوانی رساله‌های شعری فارابی و ابن سینا حاکی از این است که قول کاذب در تفسیر فیلسوفان اسکندرانی ریشه دارد و از طریق فارابی به سنت بلاغت اسلامی پا می‌گذارد. این پژوهش تجلی خاستگاه توصیف در سبک خراسانی را در نظریۀ شعری ابن سینا نشان می‌دهد. این مقاله وصف طبیعت در سبک خراسانی را که پیش از این به پدیده‌های طبیعی محدود بود مورد بازخوانی قرار می‌دهد و طبیعت را در معنای فوسیس یونانی در نظر می‌آورد و نمود آن را در دو ساحت امر طبیعی و امر سیاسی در سبک خراسانی تحلیل می‌کند.

https://lcq.modares.ac.ir/article_27550_b61726a0869331a6dec8049de8f10fc9.pdf